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[coreutils.git] / doc / coreutils.texi

\input texinfo
@c %**start of header
@setfilename coreutils.info
@settitle @sc{gnu} Coreutils

@c %**end of header

@include version.texi
@include constants.texi

@c Define new indices.
@defcodeindex op
@defcodeindex fl

@c Put everything in one index (arbitrarily chosen to be the concept index).
@syncodeindex fl cp
@syncodeindex fn cp
@syncodeindex ky cp
@syncodeindex op cp
@syncodeindex pg cp
@syncodeindex vr cp

@dircategory Basics
@direntry
* Coreutils: (coreutils).                         Core GNU utilities.
* Common options: (coreutils)Common options.      Common options.
* File permissions: (coreutils)File permissions.  Access modes.
* Date input formats: (coreutils)Date input formats.
@end direntry

@dircategory Individual utilities
@direntry
* basename: (coreutils)basename invocation.     Strip directory and suffix.
* cat: (coreutils)cat invocation.               Concatenate and write files.
* chgrp: (coreutils)chgrp invocation.           Change file groups.
* chmod: (coreutils)chmod invocation.           Change file permissions.
* chown: (coreutils)chown invocation.           Change file owners/groups.
* chroot: (coreutils)chroot invocation.         Specify the root directory.
* cksum: (coreutils)cksum invocation.           Print CRC checksum.
* comm: (coreutils)comm invocation.             Compare sorted files by line.
* cp: (coreutils)cp invocation.                 Copy files.
* csplit: (coreutils)csplit invocation.         Split by context.
* cut: (coreutils)cut invocation.               Print selected parts of lines.
* date: (coreutils)date invocation.             Print/set system date and time.
* dd: (coreutils)dd invocation.                 Copy and convert a file.
* df: (coreutils)df invocation.                 Report filesystem disk usage.
* dir: (coreutils)dir invocation.               List directories briefly.
* dircolors: (coreutils)dircolors invocation.   Color setup for ls.
* dirname: (coreutils)dirname invocation.       Strip non-directory suffix.
* du: (coreutils)du invocation.                 Report on disk usage.
* echo: (coreutils)echo invocation.             Print a line of text.
* env: (coreutils)env invocation.               Modify the environment.
* expand: (coreutils)expand invocation.         Convert tabs to spaces.
* expr: (coreutils)expr invocation.             Evaluate expressions.
* factor: (coreutils)factor invocation.         Print prime factors
* false: (coreutils)false invocation.           Do nothing, unsuccessfully.
* fmt: (coreutils)fmt invocation.               Reformat paragraph text.
* fold: (coreutils)fold invocation.             Wrap long input lines.
* groups: (coreutils)groups invocation.         Print group names a user is in.
* head: (coreutils)head invocation.             Output the first part of files.
* hostid: (coreutils)hostid invocation.         Print numeric host identifier.
* hostname: (coreutils)hostname invocation.     Print or set system name.
* id: (coreutils)id invocation.                 Print real/effective uid/gid.
* install: (coreutils)install invocation.       Copy and change attributes.
* join: (coreutils)join invocation.             Join lines on a common field.
* kill: (coreutils)kill invocation.             Send a signal to processes.
* link: (coreutils)link invocation.             Make hard links between files.
* ln: (coreutils)ln invocation.                 Make links between files.
* logname: (coreutils)logname invocation.       Print current login name.
* ls: (coreutils)ls invocation.                 List directory contents.
* md5sum: (coreutils)md5sum invocation.         Print or check message-digests.
* mkdir: (coreutils)mkdir invocation.           Create directories.
* mkfifo: (coreutils)mkfifo invocation.         Create FIFOs (named pipes).
* mknod: (coreutils)mknod invocation.           Create special files.
* mv: (coreutils)mv invocation.                 Rename files.
* nice: (coreutils)nice invocation.             Modify scheduling priority.
* nl: (coreutils)nl invocation.                 Number lines and write files.
* nohup: (coreutils)nohup invocation.           Immunize to hangups.
* od: (coreutils)od invocation.                 Dump files in octal, etc.
* paste: (coreutils)paste invocation.           Merge lines of files.
* pathchk: (coreutils)pathchk invocation.       Check file name portability.
* pr: (coreutils)pr invocation.                 Paginate or columnate files.
* printenv: (coreutils)printenv invocation.     Print environment variables.
* printf: (coreutils)printf invocation.         Format and print data.
* ptx: (coreutils)ptx invocation.               Produce permuted indexes.
* pwd: (coreutils)pwd invocation.               Print working directory.
* readlink: (coreutils)readlink invocation.     Print referent of a symlink.
* rm: (coreutils)rm invocation.                 Remove files.
* rmdir: (coreutils)rmdir invocation.           Remove empty directories.
* seq: (coreutils)seq invocation.               Print numeric sequences
* shred: (coreutils)shred invocation.           Remove files more securely.
* sleep: (coreutils)sleep invocation.           Delay for a specified time.
* sort: (coreutils)sort invocation.             Sort text files.
* split: (coreutils)split invocation.           Split into fixed-size pieces.
* stat: (coreutils)stat invocation.             Report file(system) status.
* stty: (coreutils)stty invocation.             Print/change terminal settings.
* su: (coreutils)su invocation.                 Modify user and group id.
* sum: (coreutils)sum invocation.               Print traditional checksum.
* sync: (coreutils)sync invocation.             Synchronize memory and disk.
* tac: (coreutils)tac invocation.               Reverse files.
* tail: (coreutils)tail invocation.             Output the last part of files.
* tee: (coreutils)tee invocation.               Redirect to multiple files.
* test: (coreutils)test invocation.             File/string tests.
* touch: (coreutils)touch invocation.           Change file timestamps.
* tr: (coreutils)tr invocation.                 Translate characters.
* true: (coreutils)true invocation.             Do nothing, successfully.
* tsort: (coreutils)tsort invocation.           Topological sort.
* tty: (coreutils)tty invocation.               Print terminal name.
* uname: (coreutils)uname invocation.           Print system information.
* unexpand: (coreutils)unexpand invocation.     Convert spaces to tabs.
* uniq: (coreutils)uniq invocation.             Uniquify files.
* unlink: (coreutils)unlink invocation.         Removal via unlink(2).
* users: (coreutils)users invocation.           Print current user names.
* vdir: (coreutils)vdir invocation.             List directories verbosely.
* wc: (coreutils)wc invocation.                 Byte, word, and line counts.
* who: (coreutils)who invocation.               Print who is logged in.
* whoami: (coreutils)whoami invocation.         Print effective user id.
* yes: (coreutils)yes invocation.               Print a string indefinitely.
@end direntry

@copying
This manual documents version @value{VERSION} of the @sc{gnu} core
utilities, including the standard programs for text and file manipulation.

Copyright @copyright{} 1994, 1995, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003
Free Software Foundation, Inc.

@quotation
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover
Texts.  A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
Free Documentation License''.
@end quotation
@end copying

@titlepage
@title @sc{gnu} @code{Coreutils}
@subtitle Core GNU utilities
@subtitle for version @value{VERSION}, @value{UPDATED}
@author David MacKenzie et al.

@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
@insertcopying
@end titlepage


@ifnottex
@node Top
@top GNU Coreutils

@insertcopying
@end ifnottex

@cindex core utilities
@cindex text utilities
@cindex shell utilities
@cindex file utilities

@menu
* Introduction::                       Caveats, overview, and authors.
* Common options::                     Common options.
* Output of entire files::             cat tac nl od
* Formatting file contents::           fmt pr fold
* Output of parts of files::           head tail split csplit
* Summarizing files::                  wc sum cksum md5sum
* Operating on sorted files::          sort uniq comm ptx tsort
* Operating on fields within a line::  cut paste join
* Operating on characters::            tr expand unexpand
* Directory listing::                  ls dir vdir d v dircolors
* Basic operations::                   cp dd install mv rm shred
* Special file types::                 ln mkdir rmdir mkfifo mknod
* Changing file attributes::           chgrp chmod chown touch
* Disk usage::                         df du stat sync
* Printing text::                      echo printf yes
* Conditions::                         false true test expr
* Redirection::                        tee
* File name manipulation::             dirname basename pathchk
* Working context::                    pwd stty printenv tty
* User information::                   id logname whoami groups users who
* System context::                     date uname hostname
* Modified command invocation::        chroot env nice nohup su
* Process control::                    kill
* Delaying::                           sleep
* Numeric operations::                 factor seq
* File permissions::                   Access modes.
* Date input formats::                 Specifying date strings.
* Opening the software toolbox::       The software tools philosophy.
* GNU Free Documentation License::     The license for this documentation.
* Index::                              General index.

@detailmenu
 --- The Detailed Node Listing ---

Common Options

* Backup options::              Backup options
* Block size::                  Block size
* Target directory::            Target directory
* Trailing slashes::            Trailing slashes
* Standards conformance::       Standards conformance

Output of entire files

* cat invocation::              Concatenate and write files.
* tac invocation::              Concatenate and write files in reverse.
* nl invocation::               Number lines and write files.
* od invocation::               Write files in octal or other formats.

Formatting file contents

* fmt invocation::              Reformat paragraph text.
* pr invocation::               Paginate or columnate files for printing.
* fold invocation::             Wrap input lines to fit in specified width.

Output of parts of files

* head invocation::             Output the first part of files.
* tail invocation::             Output the last part of files.
* split invocation::            Split a file into fixed-size pieces.
* csplit invocation::           Split a file into context-determined pieces.

Summarizing files

* wc invocation::               Print byte, word, and line counts.
* sum invocation::              Print checksum and block counts.
* cksum invocation::            Print CRC checksum and byte counts.
* md5sum invocation::           Print or check message-digests.

Operating on sorted files

* sort invocation::             Sort text files.
* uniq invocation::             Uniquify files.
* comm invocation::             Compare two sorted files line by line.
* ptx invocation::              Produce a permuted index of file contents.
* tsort invocation::            Topological sort.

@command{ptx}: Produce permuted indexes

* General options in ptx::      Options which affect general program behavior.
* Charset selection in ptx::    Underlying character set considerations.
* Input processing in ptx::     Input fields, contexts, and keyword selection.
* Output formatting in ptx::    Types of output format, and sizing the fields.
* Compatibility in ptx::        The GNU extensions to @command{ptx}

Operating on fields within a line

* cut invocation::              Print selected parts of lines.
* paste invocation::            Merge lines of files.
* join invocation::             Join lines on a common field.

Operating on characters

* tr invocation::               Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters.
* expand invocation::           Convert tabs to spaces.
* unexpand invocation::         Convert spaces to tabs.

@command{tr}: Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters

* Character sets::              Specifying sets of characters.
* Translating::                 Changing one characters to another.
* Squeezing::                   Squeezing repeats and deleting.
* Warnings in tr::              Warning messages.

Directory listing

* ls invocation::               List directory contents
* dir invocation::              Briefly list directory contents
* vdir invocation::             Verbosely list directory contents
* dircolors invocation::        Color setup for @command{ls}

@command{ls}:  List directory contents

* Which files are listed::      Which files are listed
* What information is listed::  What information is listed
* Sorting the output::          Sorting the output
* More details about version sort::  More details about version sort
* General output formatting::   General output formatting
* Formatting the file names::   Formatting the file names

Basic operations

* cp invocation::               Copy files and directories
* dd invocation::               Convert and copy a file
* install invocation::          Copy files and set attributes
* mv invocation::               Move (rename) files
* rm invocation::               Remove files or directories
* shred invocation::            Remove files more securely

Special file types

* link invocation::             Make a hard link via the link syscall
* ln invocation::               Make links between files
* mkdir invocation::            Make directories
* mkfifo invocation::           Make FIFOs (named pipes)
* mknod invocation::            Make block or character special files
* readlink invocation::         Print the referent of a symbolic link
* rmdir invocation::            Remove empty directories
* unlink invocation::           Remove files via unlink syscall

Changing file attributes

* chown invocation::            Change file owner and group
* chgrp invocation::            Change group ownership
* chmod invocation::            Change access permissions
* touch invocation::            Change file timestamps

Disk usage

* df invocation::               Report filesystem disk space usage
* du invocation::               Estimate file space usage
* stat invocation::             Report file or filesystem status
* sync invocation::             Synchronize data on disk with memory

Printing text

* echo invocation::             Print a line of text
* printf invocation::           Format and print data
* yes invocation::              Print a string until interrupted

Conditions

* false invocation::              Do nothing, unsuccessfully
* true invocation::               Do nothing, successfully
* test invocation::               Check file types and compare values
* expr invocation::               Evaluate expressions

@command{test}: Check file types and compare values

* File type tests::               File type tests
* Access permission tests::       Access permission tests
* File characteristic tests::     File characteristic tests
* String tests::                  String tests
* Numeric tests::                 Numeric tests

@command{expr}: Evaluate expression

* String expressions::         + : match substr index length
* Numeric expressions::        + - * / %
* Relations for expr::         | & < <= = == != >= >
* Examples of expr::           Examples of using @command{expr}

Redirection

* tee invocation::               Redirect output to multiple files

File name manipulation

* basename invocation::          Strip directory and suffix from a file name
* dirname invocation::           Strip non-directory suffix from a file name
* pathchk invocation::           Check file name portability

Working context

* pwd invocation::               Print working directory
* stty invocation::              Print or change terminal characteristics
* printenv invocation::          Print all or some environment variables
* tty invocation::               Print file name of terminal on standard input

@command{stty}: Print or change terminal characteristics

* Control::                     Control settings
* Input::                       Input settings
* Output::                      Output settings
* Local::                       Local settings
* Combination::                 Combination settings
* Characters::                  Special characters
* Special::                     Special settings

User information

* id invocation::                Print real and effective uid and gid
* logname invocation::           Print current login name
* whoami invocation::            Print effective user id
* groups invocation::            Print group names a user is in
* users invocation::             Print login names of users currently logged in
* who invocation::               Print who is currently logged in

System context

* date invocation::              Print or set system date and time
* uname invocation::             Print system information
* hostname invocation::          Print or set system name
* hostid invocation::            Print numeric host identifier.

@command{date}: Print or set system date and time

* Time directives::              Time directives
* Date directives::              Date directives
* Literal directives::           Literal directives
* Padding::                      Padding
* Setting the time::             Setting the time
* Options for date::             Options for @command{date}
* Examples of date::             Examples of @command{date}

Modified command invocation

* chroot invocation::            Run a command with a different root directory
* env invocation::               Run a command in a modified environment
* nice invocation::              Run a command with modified scheduling priority
* nohup invocation::             Run a command immune to hangups
* su invocation::                Run a command with substitute user and group id

Process control

* kill invocation::              Sending a signal to processes.

Delaying

* sleep invocation::             Delay for a specified time

Numeric operations

* factor invocation::            Print prime factors
* seq invocation::               Print numeric sequences

File permissions

* Mode Structure::               Structure of File Permissions
* Symbolic Modes::               Mnemonic permissions representation
* Numeric Modes::                Permissions as octal numbers

Date input formats

* General date syntax:           General date syntax
* Calendar date items:           Calendar date items
* Time of day items:             Time of day items
* Time zone items:               Time zone items
* Day of week items:             Day of week items
* Relative items in date strings:  Relative items in date strings
* Pure numbers in date strings:  Pure numbers in date strings
* Authors of getdate:            Authors of getdate

Opening the software toolbox

* Toolbox introduction::         Toolbox introduction
* I/O redirection::              I/O redirection
* The who command::              The @command{who} command
* The cut command::              The @command{cut} command
* The sort command::             The @command{sort} command
* The uniq command::             The @command{uniq} command
* Putting the tools together::   Putting the tools together

GNU Free Documentation License

* How to use this License for your documents::

@end detailmenu
@end menu


@node Introduction
@chapter Introduction

This manual is a work in progress: many sections make no attempt to explain
basic concepts in a way suitable for novices.  Thus, if you are interested,
please get involved in improving this manual.  The entire @sc{gnu} community
will benefit.

@cindex @acronym{POSIX}
The @sc{gnu} utilities documented here are mostly compatible with the
@acronym{POSIX} standard.
@cindex bugs, reporting
Please report bugs to @email{bug-coreutils@@gnu.org}.  Remember
to include the version number, machine architecture, input files, and
any other information needed to reproduce the bug: your input, what you
expected, what you got, and why it is wrong.  Diffs are welcome, but
please include a description of the problem as well, since this is
sometimes difficult to infer. @xref{Bugs, , , gcc, Using and Porting GNU CC}.

@cindex Berry, K.
@cindex Paterson, R.
@cindex Stallman, R.
@cindex Pinard, F.
@cindex MacKenzie, D.
@cindex Meyering, J.
@cindex Youmans, B.
This manual was originally derived from the Unix man pages in the
distributions, which were written by David MacKenzie and updated by Jim
Meyering.  What you are reading now is the authoritative documentation
for these utilities; the man pages are no longer being maintained.  The
original @command{fmt} man page was written by Ross Paterson.  Fran@,{c}ois
Pinard did the initial conversion to Texinfo format.  Karl Berry did the
indexing, some reorganization, and editing of the results.  Brian
Youmans of the Free Software Foundation office staff combined the
manuals for textutils, fileutils, and sh-utils to produce the present
omnibus manual.  Richard Stallman contributed his usual invaluable
insights to the overall process.

@node Common options
@chapter Common options

@cindex common options

Certain options are available in all of these programs.  Rather than
writing identical descriptions for each of the programs, they are
described here.  (In fact, every @sc{gnu} program accepts (or should accept)
these options.)

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
Normally options and operands can appear in any order, and programs act
as if all the options appear before any operands.  For example,
@samp{sort -r passwd -t :} acts like @samp{sort -r -t : passwd}, since
@samp{:} is an option-argument of @option{-t}.  However, if the
@env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is set, options must appear
before operands, unless otherwise specified for a particular command.

Some of these programs recognize the @option{--help} and @option{--version}
options only when one of them is the sole command line argument.

@table @samp

@item --help
@opindex --help
@cindex help, online
Print a usage message listing all available options, then exit successfully.

@item --version
@opindex --version
@cindex version number, finding
Print the version number, then exit successfully.

@item --
@opindex --
@cindex option delimiter
Delimit the option list.  Later arguments, if any, are treated as
operands even if they begin with @samp{-}.  For example, @samp{sort --
-r} reads from the file named @file{-r}.

@end table

@cindex standard input
@cindex standard output
A single @samp{-} is not really an option, though it looks like one.  It
stands for standard input, or for standard output if that is clear from
the context, and it can be used either as an operand or as an
option-argument.  For example, @samp{sort -o - -} outputs to standard
output and reads from standard input, and is equivalent to plain
@samp{sort}.  Unless otherwise specified, @samp{-} can appear in any
context that requires a file name.

@menu
* Backup options::              -b -S -V, in some programs.
* Block size::                  BLOCK_SIZE and --block-size, in some programs.
* Target directory::            --target-directory, in some programs.
* Trailing slashes::            --strip-trailing-slashes, in some programs.
* Standards conformance::       Conformance to the @acronym{POSIX} standard.
@end menu


@node Backup options
@section Backup options

@cindex backup options

Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{cp}, @code{install}, @code{ln}, and
@command{mv}) optionally make backups of files before writing new versions.
These options control the details of these backups.  The options are also
briefly mentioned in the descriptions of the particular programs.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
@opindex -b
@opindex --backup
@vindex VERSION_CONTROL
@cindex backups, making
Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.
Without this option, the original versions are destroyed.
Use @var{method} to determine the type of backups to make.
When this option is used but @var{method} is not specified,
then the value of the @env{VERSION_CONTROL}
environment variable is used.  And if @env{VERSION_CONTROL} is not set,
the default backup type is @samp{existing}.

Note that the short form of this option, @option{-b} does not accept any
argument.  Using @option{-b} is equivalent to using @option{--backup=existing}.

@vindex version-control @r{Emacs variable}
This option corresponds to the Emacs variable @samp{version-control};
the values for @var{method} are the same as those used in Emacs.
This option also accepts more descriptive names.
The valid @var{method}s are (unique abbreviations are accepted):

@table @samp
@item none
@itemx off
@opindex none @r{backup method}
Never make backups.

@item numbered
@itemx t
@opindex numbered @r{backup method}
Always make numbered backups.

@item existing
@itemx nil
@opindex existing @r{backup method}
Make numbered backups of files that already have them, simple backups
of the others.

@item simple
@itemx never
@opindex simple @r{backup method}
Always make simple backups.  Please note @samp{never} is not to be
confused with @samp{none}.

@end table

@item -S @var{suffix}
@itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
@opindex -S
@opindex --suffix
@cindex backup suffix
@vindex SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX
Append @var{suffix} to each backup file made with @option{-b}.  If this
option is not specified, the value of the @env{SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX}
environment variable is used.  And if @env{SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX} is not
set, the default is @samp{~}, just as in Emacs.

@itemx --version-control=@var{method}
@opindex --version-control
@c FIXME: remove this block one or two releases after the actual
@c removal from the code.
This option is obsolete and will be removed in a future release.
It has been replaced with @w{@kbd{--backup}}.

@end table

@node Block size
@section Block size

@cindex block size

Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{df}, @code{du}, and
@code{ls}) display sizes in ``blocks''.  You can adjust the block size
and method of display to make sizes easier to read.  The block size
used for display is independent of any filesystem block size.
Fractional block counts are rounded up to the nearest integer.

@opindex --block-size=@var{size}
@vindex BLOCK_SIZE
@vindex DF_BLOCK_SIZE
@vindex DU_BLOCK_SIZE
@vindex LS_BLOCK_SIZE
@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT@r{, and block size}

The default block size is chosen by examining the following environment
variables in turn; the first one that is set determines the block size.

@table @code

@item DF_BLOCK_SIZE
This specifies the default block size for the @command{df} command.
Similarly, @env{DU_BLOCK_SIZE} specifies the default for @command{du} and
@env{LS_BLOCK_SIZE} for @command{ls}.

@item BLOCK_SIZE
This specifies the default block size for all three commands, if the
above command-specific environment variables are not set.

@item POSIXLY_CORRECT
If neither the @env{@var{command}_BLOCK_SIZE} nor the @env{BLOCK_SIZE}
variables are set, but this variable is set, the block size defaults to 512.

@end table

If none of the above environment variables are set, the block size
currently defaults to 1024 bytes in most contexts, but this number may
change in the future.  For @command{ls} file sizes, the block size
defaults to 1 byte.

@cindex human-readable output
@cindex SI output

A block size specification can be a positive integer specifying the number
of bytes per block, or it can be @code{human-readable} or @code{si} to
select a human-readable format.  Integers may be followed by suffixes
that are upward compatible with the
@uref{http://www.bipm.fr/enus/3_SI/si-prefixes.html, SI prefixes}
for decimal multiples and with the
@uref{http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html, IEC 60027-2
prefixes for binary multiples}.

With human-readable formats, output sizes are followed by a size letter
such as @samp{M} for megabytes.  @code{BLOCK_SIZE=human-readable} uses
powers of 1024; @samp{M} stands for 1,048,576 bytes.
@code{BLOCK_SIZE=si} is similar, but uses powers of 1000 and appends
@samp{B}; @samp{MB} stands for 1,000,000 bytes.

@vindex LC_NUMERIC
A block size specification preceded by @samp{'} causes output sizes to
be displayed with thousands separators.  The @env{LC_NUMERIC} locale
specifies the thousands separator and grouping.  For example, in an
American English locale, @samp{--block-size="'1kB"} would cause a size
of 1234000 bytes to be displayed as @samp{1,234}.  In the default C
locale, there is no thousands separator so a leading @samp{'} has no
effect.

An integer block size can be followed by a suffix to specify a
multiple of that size.  A bare size letter,
or one followed by @samp{iB}, specifies
a multiple using powers of 1024.  A size letter followed by @samp{B}
specifies powers of 1000 instead.  For example, @samp{1M} and
@samp{1MiB} are equivalent to @samp{1048576}, whereas @samp{1MB} is
equivalent to @samp{1000000}.

A plain suffix without a preceding integer acts as if @samp{1} were
prepended, except that it causes a size indication to be appended to
the output.  For example, @samp{--block-size="kB"} displays 3000 as
@samp{3kB}.

The following suffixes are defined.  Large sizes like @code{1Y}
may be rejected by your computer due to limitations of its arithmetic.

@table @samp
@item kB
@cindex kilobyte, definition of
kilobyte: @math{10^3 = 1000}.
@item k
@itemx K
@itemx KiB
@cindex kibibyte, definition of
kibibyte: @math{2^10 = 1024}.  @samp{K} is special: the SI prefix is
@samp{k} and the IEC 60027-2 prefix is @samp{Ki}, but tradition and
@acronym{POSIX} use @samp{k} to mean @samp{KiB}.
@item MB
@cindex megabyte, definition of
megabyte: @math{10^6 = 1,000,000}.
@item M
@itemx MiB
@cindex mebibyte, definition of
mebibyte: @math{2^20 = 1,048,576}.
@item GB
@cindex gigabyte, definition of
gigabyte: @math{10^9 = 1,000,000,000}.
@item G
@itemx GiB
@cindex gibibyte, definition of
gibibyte: @math{2^30 = 1,073,741,824}.
@item TB
@cindex terabyte, definition of
terabyte:  @math{10^12 = 1,000,000,000,000}.
@item T
@itemx TiB
@cindex tebibyte, definition of
tebibyte: @math{2^40 = 1,099,511,627,776}.
@item PB
@cindex petabyte, definition of
petabyte: @math{10^15 = 1,000,000,000,000,000}.
@item P
@itemx PiB
@cindex pebibyte, definition of
pebibyte: @math{2^50 = 1,125,899,906,842,624}.
@item EB
@cindex exabyte, definition of
exabyte: @math{10^18 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000}.
@item E
@itemx EiB
@cindex exbibyte, definition of
exbibyte: @math{2^60 = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976}.
@item ZB
@cindex zettabyte, definition of
zettabyte: @math{10^21 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000}
@item Z
@itemx ZiB
@math{2^70 = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424}.
(@samp{Zi} is a GNU extension to IEC 60027-2.)
@item YB
@cindex yottabyte, definition of
yottabyte: @math{10^24 = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000}.
@item Y
@itemx YiB
@math{2^80 = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176}.
(@samp{Yi} is a GNU extension to IEC 60027-2.)
@end table

@opindex -k
@opindex -h
@opindex --block-size
@opindex --human-readable
@opindex --si

Block size defaults can be overridden by an explicit
@option{--block-size=@var{size}} option.  The @option{-k}
option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}, which
is the default unless the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is
set.  The @option{-h} or @option{--human-readable} option is equivalent to
@option{--block-size=human-readable}.  The @option{--si} option is
equivalent to @option{--block-size=si}.

@node Target directory
@section Target directory

@cindex target directory

Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{cp}, @code{install}, @code{ln}, and
@command{mv}) allow you to specify the target directory via this option:

@table @samp

@itemx @w{@kbd{--target-directory}=@var{directory}}
@opindex --target-directory
@cindex target directory
@cindex destination directory
Specify the destination @var{directory}.

The interface for most programs is that after processing options and a
finite (possibly zero) number of fixed-position arguments, the remaining
argument list is either expected to be empty, or is a list of items
(usually files) that will all be handled identically.  The @code{xargs}
program is designed to work well with this convention.

The commands in the @command{mv}-family are unusual in that they take
a variable number of arguments with a special case at the @emph{end}
(namely, the target directory).  This makes it nontrivial to perform some
operations, e.g., ``move all files from here to ../d/'', because
@code{mv * ../d/} might exhaust the argument space, and @code{ls | xargs ...}
doesn't have a clean way to specify an extra final argument for each
invocation of the subject command.  (It can be done by going through a
shell command, but that requires more human labor and brain power than
it should.)

The @w{@kbd{--target-directory}} option allows the @command{cp},
@command{install}, @code{ln}, and @code{mv} programs to be used conveniently
with @code{xargs}.  For example, you can move the files from the
current directory to a sibling directory, @code{d} like this:
(However, this doesn't move files whose names begin with @samp{.}.)

@smallexample
ls |xargs mv --target-directory=../d
@end smallexample

If you use the @sc{gnu} @code{find} program, you can move @emph{all}
files with this command:
@example
find . -mindepth 1 -maxdepth 1 \
  | xargs mv --target-directory=../d
@end example

But that will fail if there are no files in the current directory
or if any file has a name containing a newline character.
The following example removes those limitations and requires both
@sc{gnu} @code{find} and @sc{gnu} @code{xargs}:
@example
find . -mindepth 1 -maxdepth 1 -print0 \
  | xargs --null --no-run-if-empty \
      mv --target-directory=../d
@end example

@end table

@node Trailing slashes
@section Trailing slashes

@cindex trailing slashes

Some @sc{gnu} programs (at least @command{cp} and @code{mv}) allow you to
remove any trailing slashes from each @var{source} argument before
operating on it.  The @w{@kbd{--strip-trailing-slashes}} option enables
this behavior.

This is useful when a @var{source} argument may have a trailing slash and
@c FIXME: mv's behavior in this case is system-dependent
specify a symbolic link to a directory.  This scenario is in fact rather
common because some shells can automatically append a trailing slash when
performing file name completion on such symbolic links.  Without this
option, @command{mv}, for example, (via the system's rename function) must
interpret a trailing slash as a request to dereference the symbolic link
and so must rename the indirectly referenced @emph{directory} and not
the symbolic link.  Although it may seem surprising that such behavior
be the default, it is required by @acronym{POSIX} and is consistent with
other parts of that standard.

@node Standards conformance
@section Standards conformance

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
In a few cases, the @sc{gnu} utilities' default behavior is
incompatible with the @acronym{POSIX} standard.  To suppress these
incompatibilities, define the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment
variable.  Unless you are checking for @acronym{POSIX} conformance, you
probably do not need to define @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT}.

Newer versions of @acronym{POSIX} are occasionally incompatible with older
versions.  For example, older versions of @acronym{POSIX} required the
command @samp{sort +1} to sort based on the second and succeeding
fields in each input line, but starting with @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001
the same command is required to sort the file named @file{+1}, and you
must instead use the command @samp{sort -k 2} to get the field-based
sort.

@vindex _POSIX2_VERSION
The @sc{gnu} utilities normally conform to the version of @acronym{POSIX}
that is standard for your system.  To cause them to conform to a
different version of @acronym{POSIX}, define the @env{_POSIX2_VERSION}
environment variable to a value of the form @var{yyyymm} specifying
the year and month the standard was adopted.  Two values are currently
supported for @env{_POSIX2_VERSION}: @samp{199209} stands for
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.2-1992, and @samp{200112} stands for @acronym{POSIX}
1003.1-2001.  For example, if you are running older software that
assumes an older version of @acronym{POSIX} and uses @samp{sort +1}, you
can work around the compatibility problems by setting
@samp{_POSIX2_VERSION=199209} in your environment.

@node Output of entire files
@chapter Output of entire files

@cindex output of entire files
@cindex entire files, output of

These commands read and write entire files, possibly transforming them
in some way.

@menu
* cat invocation::              Concatenate and write files.
* tac invocation::              Concatenate and write files in reverse.
* nl invocation::               Number lines and write files.
* od invocation::               Write files in octal or other formats.
@end menu

@node cat invocation
@section @command{cat}: Concatenate and write files

@pindex cat
@cindex concatenate and write files
@cindex copying files

@command{cat} copies each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output.  Synopsis:

@example
cat [@var{option}] [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -A
@itemx --show-all
@opindex -A
@opindex --show-all
Equivalent to @option{-vET}.

@item -B
@itemx --binary
@opindex -B
@opindex --binary
@cindex binary and text I/O in cat
On MS-DOS and MS-Windows only, read and write the files in binary mode.
By default, @command{cat} on MS-DOS/MS-Windows uses binary mode only when
standard output is redirected to a file or a pipe; this option overrides
that.  Binary file I/O is used so that the files retain their format
(Unix text as opposed to DOS text and binary), because @command{cat} is
frequently used as a file-copying program.  Some options (see below)
cause @command{cat} to read and write files in text mode because in those
cases the original file contents aren't important (e.g., when lines are
numbered by @command{cat}, or when line endings should be marked).  This is
so these options work as DOS/Windows users would expect; for example,
DOS-style text files have their lines end with the CR-LF pair of
characters, which won't be processed as an empty line by @option{-b} unless
the file is read in text mode.

@item -b
@itemx --number-nonblank
@opindex -b
@opindex --number-nonblank
Number all nonblank output lines, starting with 1.  On MS-DOS and
MS-Windows, this option causes @command{cat} to read and write files in
text mode.

@item -e
@opindex -e
Equivalent to @option{-vE}.

@item -E
@itemx --show-ends
@opindex -E
@opindex --show-ends
Display a @samp{$} after the end of each line.  On MS-DOS and
MS-Windows, this option causes @command{cat} to read and write files in
text mode.

@item -n
@itemx --number
@opindex -n
@opindex --number
Number all output lines, starting with 1.  On MS-DOS and MS-Windows,
this option causes @command{cat} to read and write files in text mode.

@item -s
@itemx --squeeze-blank
@opindex -s
@opindex --squeeze-blank
@cindex squeezing blank lines
Replace multiple adjacent blank lines with a single blank line.  On
MS-DOS and MS-Windows, this option causes @command{cat} to read and write
files in text mode.

@item -t
@opindex -t
Equivalent to @option{-vT}.

@item -T
@itemx --show-tabs
@opindex -T
@opindex --show-tabs
Display TAB characters as @samp{^I}.

@item -u
@opindex -u
Ignored; for Unix compatibility.

@item -v
@itemx --show-nonprinting
@opindex -v
@opindex --show-nonprinting
Display control characters except for LFD and TAB using
@samp{^} notation and precede characters that have the high bit set with
@samp{M-}.  On MS-DOS and MS-Windows, this option causes @command{cat} to
read files and standard input in DOS binary mode, so the CR
characters at the end of each line are also visible.

@end table


@node tac invocation
@section @command{tac}: Concatenate and write files in reverse

@pindex tac
@cindex reversing files

@command{tac} copies each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output, reversing the
records (lines by default) in each separately.  Synopsis:

@example
tac [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@dfn{Records} are separated by instances of a string (newline by
default).  By default, this separator string is attached to the end of
the record that it follows in the file.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --before
@opindex -b
@opindex --before
The separator is attached to the beginning of the record that it
precedes in the file.

@item -r
@itemx --regex
@opindex -r
@opindex --regex
Treat the separator string as a regular expression.  Users of @command{tac}
on MS-DOS/MS-Windows should note that, since @command{tac} reads files in
binary mode, each line of a text file might end with a CR/LF pair
instead of the Unix-style LF.

@item -s @var{separator}
@itemx --separator=@var{separator}
@opindex -s
@opindex --separator
Use @var{separator} as the record separator, instead of newline.

@end table


@node nl invocation
@section @command{nl}: Number lines and write files

@pindex nl
@cindex numbering lines
@cindex line numbering

@command{nl} writes each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output, with line numbers
added to some or all of the lines.  Synopsis:

@example
nl [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@cindex logical pages, numbering on
@command{nl} decomposes its input into (logical) pages; by default, the
line number is reset to 1 at the top of each logical page.  @command{nl}
treats all of the input files as a single document; it does not reset
line numbers or logical pages between files.

@cindex headers, numbering
@cindex body, numbering
@cindex footers, numbering
A logical page consists of three sections: header, body, and footer.
Any of the sections can be empty.  Each can be numbered in a different
style from the others.

The beginnings of the sections of logical pages are indicated in the
input file by a line containing exactly one of these delimiter strings:

@table @samp
@item \:\:\:
start of header;
@item \:\:
start of body;
@item \:
start of footer.
@end table

The two characters from which these strings are made can be changed from
@samp{\} and @samp{:} via options (see below), but the pattern and
length of each string cannot be changed.

A section delimiter is replaced by an empty line on output.  Any text
that comes before the first section delimiter string in the input file
is considered to be part of a body section, so @command{nl} treats a
file that contains no section delimiters as a single body section.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b @var{style}
@itemx --body-numbering=@var{style}
@opindex -b
@opindex --body-numbering
Select the numbering style for lines in the body section of each
logical page.  When a line is not numbered, the current line number
is not incremented, but the line number separator character is still
prepended to the line.  The styles are:

@table @samp
@item a
number all lines,
@item t
number only nonempty lines (default for body),
@item n
do not number lines (default for header and footer),
@item p@var{regexp}
number only lines that contain a match for @var{regexp}.
@end table

@item -d @var{cd}
@itemx --section-delimiter=@var{cd}
@opindex -d
@opindex --section-delimiter
@cindex section delimiters of pages
Set the section delimiter characters to @var{cd}; default is
@samp{\:}. If only @var{c} is given, the second remains @samp{:}.
(Remember to protect @samp{\} or other metacharacters from shell
expansion with quotes or extra backslashes.)

@item -f @var{style}
@itemx --footer-numbering=@var{style}
@opindex -f
@opindex --footer-numbering
Analogous to @option{--body-numbering}.

@item -h @var{style}
@itemx --header-numbering=@var{style}
@opindex -h
@opindex --header-numbering
Analogous to @option{--body-numbering}.

@item -i @var{number}
@itemx --page-increment=@var{number}
@opindex -i
@opindex --page-increment
Increment line numbers by @var{number} (default 1).

@item -l @var{number}
@itemx --join-blank-lines=@var{number}
@opindex -l
@opindex --join-blank-lines
@cindex empty lines, numbering
@cindex blank lines, numbering
Consider @var{number} (default 1) consecutive empty lines to be one
logical line for numbering, and only number the last one.  Where fewer
than @var{number} consecutive empty lines occur, do not number them.
An empty line is one that contains no characters, not even spaces
or tabs.

@item -n @var{format}
@itemx --number-format=@var{format}
@opindex -n
@opindex --number-format
Select the line numbering format (default is @code{rn}):

@table @samp
@item ln
@opindex ln @r{format for @command{nl}}
left justified, no leading zeros;
@item rn
@opindex rn @r{format for @command{nl}}
right justified, no leading zeros;
@item rz
@opindex rz @r{format for @command{nl}}
right justified, leading zeros.
@end table

@item -p
@itemx --no-renumber
@opindex -p
@opindex --no-renumber
Do not reset the line number at the start of a logical page.

@item -s @var{string}
@itemx --number-separator=@var{string}
@opindex -s
@opindex --number-separator
Separate the line number from the text line in the output with
@var{string} (default is the TAB character).

@item -v @var{number}
@itemx --starting-line-number=@var{number}
@opindex -v
@opindex --starting-line-number
Set the initial line number on each logical page to @var{number} (default 1).

@item -w @var{number}
@itemx --number-width=@var{number}
@opindex -w
@opindex --number-width
Use @var{number} characters for line numbers (default 6).

@end table


@node od invocation
@section @command{od}: Write files in octal or other formats

@pindex od
@cindex octal dump of files
@cindex hex dump of files
@cindex ASCII dump of files
@cindex file contents, dumping unambiguously

@command{od} writes an unambiguous representation of each @var{file}
(@samp{-} means standard input), or standard input if none are given.
Synopses:

@example
od [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
od --traditional [@var{file}] [[+]@var{offset} [[+]@var{label}]]
@end example

Each line of output consists of the offset in the input, followed by
groups of data from the file. By default, @command{od} prints the offset in
octal, and each group of file data is two bytes of input printed as a
single octal number.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -A @var{radix}
@itemx --address-radix=@var{radix}
@opindex -A
@opindex --address-radix
@cindex radix for file offsets
@cindex file offset radix
Select the base in which file offsets are printed.  @var{radix} can
be one of the following:

@table @samp
@item d
decimal;
@item o
octal;
@item x
hexadecimal;
@item n
none (do not print offsets).
@end table

The default is octal.

@item -j @var{bytes}
@itemx --skip-bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -j
@opindex --skip-bytes
Skip @var{bytes} input bytes before formatting and writing.  If
@var{bytes} begins with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X}, it is interpreted in
hexadecimal; otherwise, if it begins with @samp{0}, in octal; otherwise,
in decimal.  Appending @samp{b} multiplies @var{bytes} by 512, @samp{k}
by 1024, and @samp{m} by 1048576.

@item -N @var{bytes}
@itemx --read-bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -N
@opindex --read-bytes
Output at most @var{bytes} bytes of the input.  Prefixes and suffixes on
@code{bytes} are interpreted as for the @option{-j} option.

@item -s @var{n}
@itemx --strings[=@var{n}]
@opindex -s
@opindex --strings
@cindex string constants, outputting
Instead of the normal output, output only @dfn{string constants}: at
least @var{n} consecutive @acronym{ASCII} graphic characters,
followed by a null (zero) byte.

If @var{n} is omitted with @option{--strings}, the default is 3.  On
older systems, @sc{gnu} @command{od} instead supports an obsolete
option @option{-s[@var{n}]}, where @var{n} also defaults to 3.
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance}) does not allow
@option{-s} without an argument; use @option{--strings} instead.

@item -t @var{type}
@itemx --format=@var{type}
@opindex -t
@opindex --format
Select the format in which to output the file data.  @var{type} is a
string of one or more of the below type indicator characters.  If you
include more than one type indicator character in a single @var{type}
string, or use this option more than once, @command{od} writes one copy
of each output line using each of the data types that you specified,
in the order that you specified.

Adding a trailing ``z'' to any type specification appends a display
of the @acronym{ASCII} character representation of the printable characters
to the output line generated by the type specification.

@table @samp
@item a
named character
@item c
@acronym{ASCII} character or backslash escape,
@item d
signed decimal
@item f
floating point
@item o
octal
@item u
unsigned decimal
@item x
hexadecimal
@end table

The type @code{a} outputs things like @samp{sp} for space, @samp{nl} for
newline, and @samp{nul} for a null (zero) byte.  Type @code{c} outputs
@samp{ }, @samp{\n}, and @code{\0}, respectively.

@cindex type size
Except for types @samp{a} and @samp{c}, you can specify the number
of bytes to use in interpreting each number in the given data type
by following the type indicator character with a decimal integer.
Alternately, you can specify the size of one of the C compiler's
built-in data types by following the type indicator character with
one of the following characters.  For integers (@samp{d}, @samp{o},
@samp{u}, @samp{x}):

@table @samp
@item C
char
@item S
short
@item I
int
@item L
long
@end table

For floating point (@code{f}):

@table @asis
@item F
float
@item D
double
@item L
long double
@end table

@item -v
@itemx --output-duplicates
@opindex -v
@opindex --output-duplicates
Output consecutive lines that are identical.  By default, when two or
more consecutive output lines would be identical, @command{od} outputs only
the first line, and puts just an asterisk on the following line to
indicate the elision.

@item -w @var{n}
@itemx --width[=@var{n}]
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
Dump @code{n} input bytes per output line.  This must be a multiple of
the least common multiple of the sizes associated with the specified
output types.

If this option is not given at all, the default is 16.  If @var{n} is
omitted with @option{--width}, the default is 32.  On older systems,
@sc{gnu} @command{od} instead supports an obsolete option
@option{-w[@var{n}]}, where @var{n} also defaults to 32.  @acronym{POSIX}
1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance}) does not allow @option{-w}
without an argument; use @option{--width} instead.

@end table

The next several options are shorthands for format specifications.
@sc{gnu} @command{od} accepts any combination of shorthands and format
specification options.  These options accumulate.

@table @samp

@item -a
@opindex -a
Output as named characters.  Equivalent to @option{-ta}.

@item -b
@opindex -b
Output as octal bytes.  Equivalent to @option{-toC}.

@item -c
@opindex -c
Output as @acronym{ASCII} characters or backslash escapes.  Equivalent to
@option{-tc}.

@item -d
@opindex -d
Output as unsigned decimal shorts.  Equivalent to @option{-tu2}.

@item -f
@opindex -f
Output as floats.  Equivalent to @option{-tfF}.

@item -h
@opindex -h
Output as hexadecimal shorts.  Equivalent to @option{-tx2}.

@item -i
@opindex -i
Output as decimal shorts.  Equivalent to @option{-td2}.

@item -l
@opindex -l
Output as decimal longs.  Equivalent to @option{-td4}.

@item -o
@opindex -o
Output as octal shorts.  Equivalent to @option{-to2}.

@item -x
@opindex -x
Output as hexadecimal shorts.  Equivalent to @option{-tx2}.

@item --traditional
@opindex --traditional
Recognize the non-option arguments that traditional @command{od}
accepted.  The following syntax:

@smallexample
od --traditional [@var{file}] [[+]@var{offset}[.][b] [[+]@var{label}[.][b]]]
@end smallexample

@noindent
can be used to specify at most one file and optional arguments
specifying an offset and a pseudo-start address, @var{label}.  By
default, @var{offset} is interpreted as an octal number specifying how
many input bytes to skip before formatting and writing.  The optional
trailing decimal point forces the interpretation of @var{offset} as a
decimal number.  If no decimal is specified and the offset begins with
@samp{0x} or @samp{0X} it is interpreted as a hexadecimal number.  If
there is a trailing @samp{b}, the number of bytes skipped will be
@var{offset} multiplied by 512.  The @var{label} argument is interpreted
just like @var{offset}, but it specifies an initial pseudo-address.  The
pseudo-addresses are displayed in parentheses following any normal
address.

@end table


@node Formatting file contents
@chapter Formatting file contents

@cindex formatting file contents

These commands reformat the contents of files.

@menu
* fmt invocation::              Reformat paragraph text.
* pr invocation::               Paginate or columnate files for printing.
* fold invocation::             Wrap input lines to fit in specified width.
@end menu


@node fmt invocation
@section @command{fmt}: Reformat paragraph text

@pindex fmt
@cindex reformatting paragraph text
@cindex paragraphs, reformatting
@cindex text, reformatting

@command{fmt} fills and joins lines to produce output lines of (at most)
a given number of characters (75 by default).  Synopsis:

@example
fmt [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{fmt} reads from the specified @var{file} arguments (or standard
input if none are given), and writes to standard output.

By default, blank lines, spaces between words, and indentation are
preserved in the output; successive input lines with different
indentation are not joined; tabs are expanded on input and introduced on
output.

@cindex line-breaking
@cindex sentences and line-breaking
@cindex Knuth, Donald E.
@cindex Plass, Michael F.
@command{fmt} prefers breaking lines at the end of a sentence, and tries to
avoid line breaks after the first word of a sentence or before the last
word of a sentence.  A @dfn{sentence break} is defined as either the end
of a paragraph or a word ending in any of @samp{.?!}, followed by two
spaces or end of line, ignoring any intervening parentheses or quotes.
Like @TeX{}, @command{fmt} reads entire ``paragraphs'' before choosing line
breaks; the algorithm is a variant of that in ``Breaking Paragraphs Into
Lines'' (Donald E. Knuth and Michael F. Plass, @cite{Software---Practice
and Experience}, 11 (1981), 1119--1184).

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --crown-margin
@opindex -c
@opindex --crown-margin
@cindex crown margin
@dfn{Crown margin} mode: preserve the indentation of the first two
lines within a paragraph, and align the left margin of each subsequent
line with that of the second line.

@item -t
@itemx --tagged-paragraph
@opindex -t
@opindex --tagged-paragraph
@cindex tagged paragraphs
@dfn{Tagged paragraph} mode: like crown margin mode, except that if
indentation of the first line of a paragraph is the same as the
indentation of the second, the first line is treated as a one-line
paragraph.

@item -s
@itemx --split-only
@opindex -s
@opindex --split-only
Split lines only.  Do not join short lines to form longer ones.  This
prevents sample lines of code, and other such ``formatted'' text from
being unduly combined.

@item -u
@itemx --uniform-spacing
@opindex -u
@opindex --uniform-spacing
Uniform spacing.  Reduce spacing between words to one space, and spacing
between sentences to two spaces.

@item -@var{width}
@itemx -w @var{width}
@itemx --width=@var{width}
@opindex -@var{width}
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
Fill output lines up to @var{width} characters (default 75).  @command{fmt}
initially tries to make lines about 7% shorter than this, to give it
room to balance line lengths.

@item -p @var{prefix}
@itemx --prefix=@var{prefix}
Only lines beginning with @var{prefix} (possibly preceded by whitespace)
are subject to formatting. The prefix and any preceding whitespace are
stripped for the formatting and then re-attached to each formatted output
line.  One use is to format certain kinds of program comments, while
leaving the code unchanged.

@end table


@node pr invocation
@section @command{pr}: Paginate or columnate files for printing

@pindex pr
@cindex printing, preparing files for
@cindex multicolumn output, generating
@cindex merging files in parallel

@command{pr} writes each @var{file} (@samp{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output, paginating and
optionally outputting in multicolumn format; optionally merges all
@var{file}s, printing all in parallel, one per column.  Synopsis:

@example
pr [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@vindex LC_MESSAGES
By default, a 5-line header is printed at each page: two blank lines;
a line with the date, the filename, and the page count; and two more
blank lines.  A footer of five blank lines is also printed.
With the @option{-F}
option, a 3-line header is printed: the leading two blank lines are
omitted; no footer is used.  The default @var{page_length} in both cases is 66
lines.  The default number of text lines changes from 56 (without @option{-F})
to 63 (with @option{-F}).  The text line of the header takes the form
@samp{@var{date} @var{string} @var{page}}, with spaces inserted around
@var{string} so that the line takes up the full @var{page_width}.  Here,
@var{date} is the date (see the @option{-D} or @option{--date-format}
option for details), @var{string} is the centered header string, and
@var{page} identifies the page number.  The @env{LC_MESSAGES} locale
category affects the spelling of @var{page}; in the default C locale, it
is @samp{Page @var{number}} where @var{number} is the decimal page
number.

Form feeds in the input cause page breaks in the output.  Multiple form
feeds produce empty pages.

Columns are of equal width, separated by an optional string (default
is @samp{space}).  For multicolumn output, lines will always be truncated to
@var{page_width} (default 72), unless you use the @option{-J} option.
For single
column output no line truncation occurs by default.  Use @option{-W} option to
truncate lines in that case.

The following changes were made in version 1.22i and apply to later
versions of @command{pr}:
@c FIXME: this whole section here sounds very awkward to me. I
@c made a few small changes, but really it all needs to be redone. - Brian
@c OK, I fixed another sentence or two, but some of it I just don't understand.
@ - Brian
@itemize @bullet

@item
Some small @var{letter options} (@option{-s}, @option{-w}) have been
redefined for better @acronym{POSIX} compliance.  The output of some further
cases has been adapted to other Unix systems.  These changes are not
compatible with earlier versions of the program.

@item
Some @var{new capital letter} options (@option{-J}, @option{-S}, @option{-W})
have been introduced to turn off unexpected interferences of small letter
options.  The @option{-N} option and the second argument @var{last_page}
of @samp{+FIRST_PAGE} offer more flexibility.  The detailed handling of
form feeds set in the input files requires the @option{-T} option.

@item
Capital letter options override small letter ones.

@item
Some of the option-arguments (compare @option{-s}, @option{-e},
@option{-i}, @option{-n}) cannot be specified as separate arguments from the
preceding option letter (already stated in the @acronym{POSIX} specification).
@end itemize

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item +@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
@itemx --pages=@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
@c The two following @opindex lines evoke warnings because they contain `:'
@c The `info' spec does not permit that.  If we use those lines, we end
@c up with truncated index entries that don't work.
@c @opindex +@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
@c @opindex --pages=@var{first_page}[:@var{last_page}]
@opindex +@var{page_range}
@opindex --pages=@var{page_range}
Begin printing with page @var{first_page} and stop with @var{last_page}.
Missing @samp{:@var{last_page}} implies end of file.  While estimating
the number of skipped pages each form feed in the input file results
in a new page.  Page counting with and without @samp{+@var{first_page}}
is identical.  By default, counting starts with the first page of input
file (not first page printed).  Line numbering may be altered by @option{-N}
option.

@item -@var{column}
@itemx --columns=@var{column}
@opindex -@var{column}
@opindex --columns
@cindex down columns
With each single @var{file}, produce @var{column} columns of output
(default is 1) and print columns down, unless @option{-a} is used.  The
column width is automatically decreased as @var{column} increases; unless
you use the @option{-W/-w} option to increase @var{page_width} as well.
This option might well cause some lines to be truncated.  The number of
lines in the columns on each page are balanced.  The options @option{-e}
and @option{-i} are on for multiple text-column output.  Together with
@option{-J} option column alignment and line truncation is turned off.
Lines of full length are joined in a free field format and @option{-S}
option may set field separators.  @option{-@var{column}} may not be used
with @option{-m} option.

@item -a
@itemx --across
@opindex -a
@opindex --across
@cindex across columns
With each single @var{file}, print columns across rather than down.  The
@option{-@var{column}} option must be given with @var{column} greater than one.
If a line is too long to fit in a column, it is truncated.

@item -c
@itemx --show-control-chars
@opindex -c
@opindex --show-control-chars
Print control characters using hat notation (e.g., @samp{^G}); print
other nonprinting characters in octal backslash notation.  By default,
nonprinting characters are not changed.

@item -d
@itemx --double-space
@opindex -d
@opindex --double-space
@cindex double spacing
Double space the output.

@item -D @var{format}
@itemx --date-format=@var{format}
@cindex time formats
@cindex formatting times
Format header dates using @var{format}, using the same conventions as
for the the command @samp{date +@var{format}}; @xref{date invocation}.
Except for directives, which start with
@samp{%}, characters in @var{format} are printed unchanged.  You can use
this option to specify an arbitrary string in place of the header date,
e.g., @option{--date-format="Monday morning"}.

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
@vindex LC_TIME
If the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable is not set, the date
format defaults to @samp{%Y-%m-%d %H:%M} (for example, @samp{2001-12-04
23:59}); otherwise, the format depends on the @env{LC_TIME} locale
category, with the default being @samp{%b %e %H:%M %Y} (for example,
@samp{Dec@ @ 4 23:59 2001}.

@item -e[@var{in-tabchar}[@var{in-tabwidth}]]
@itemx --expand-tabs[=@var{in-tabchar}[@var{in-tabwidth}]]
@opindex -e
@opindex --expand-tabs
@cindex input tabs
Expand @var{tab}s to spaces on input.  Optional argument @var{in-tabchar} is
the input tab character (default is the TAB character).  Second optional
argument @var{in-tabwidth} is the input tab character's width (default
is 8).

@item -f
@itemx -F
@itemx --form-feed
@opindex -F
@opindex -f
@opindex --form-feed
Use a form feed instead of newlines to separate output pages.  The default
page length of 66 lines is not altered.  But the number of lines of text
per page changes from default 56 to 63 lines.

@item -h @var{HEADER}
@itemx --header=@var{HEADER}
@opindex -h
@opindex --header
Replace the filename in the header with the centered string @var{header}.
When using the shell, @var{header} should be quoted and should be
separated from @option{-h} by a space.

@item -i[@var{out-tabchar}[@var{out-tabwidth}]]
@itemx --output-tabs[=@var{out-tabchar}[@var{out-tabwidth}]]
@opindex -i
@opindex --output-tabs
@cindex output tabs
Replace spaces with @var{tab}s on output.  Optional argument @var{out-tabchar}
is the output tab character (default is the TAB character).  Second optional
argument @var{out-tabwidth} is the output tab character's width (default
is 8).

@item -J
@itemx --join-lines
@opindex -J
@opindex --join-lines
Merge lines of full length.  Used together with the column options
@option{-@var{column}}, @option{-a -@var{column}} or @option{-m}.  Turns off
@option{-W/-w} line truncation;
no column alignment used; may be used with
@option{--sep-string[=@var{string}]}.  @option{-J} has been introduced
(together with @option{-W} and @option{--sep-string})
to disentangle the old (@acronym{POSIX}-compliant) options @option{-w} and
@option{-s} along with the three column options.


@item -l @var{page_length}
@itemx --length=@var{page_length}
@opindex -l
@opindex --length
Set the page length to @var{page_length} (default 66) lines, including
the lines of the header [and the footer].  If @var{page_length} is less
than or equal to 10 (or <= 3 with @option{-F}), the header and footer are
omitted, and all form feeds set in input files are eliminated, as if
the @option{-T} option had been given.

@item -m
@itemx --merge
@opindex -m
@opindex --merge
Merge and print all @var{file}s in parallel, one in each column.  If a
line is too long to fit in a column, it is truncated, unless the @option{-J}
option is used.  @option{--sep-string[=@var{string}]} may be used.
Empty pages in
some @var{file}s (form feeds set) produce empty columns, still marked
by @var{string}.  The result is a continuous line numbering and column
marking throughout the whole merged file.  Completely empty merged pages
show no separators or line numbers.  The default header becomes
@samp{@var{date} @var{page}} with spaces inserted in the middle; this
may be used with the @option{-h} or @option{--header} option to fill up
the middle blank part.

@item -n[@var{number-separator}[@var{digits}]]
@itemx --number-lines[=@var{number-separator}[@var{digits}]]
@opindex -n
@opindex --number-lines
Provide @var{digits} digit line numbering (default for @var{digits} is
5).  With multicolumn output the number occupies the first @var{digits}
column positions of each text column or only each line of @option{-m}
output.  With single column output the number precedes each line just as
@option{-m} does.  Default counting of the line numbers starts with the
first line of the input file (not the first line printed, compare the
@option{--page} option and @option{-N} option).
Optional argument @var{number-separator} is the character appended to
the line number to separate it from the text followed.  The default
separator is the TAB character.  In a strict sense a TAB is always
printed with single column output only.  The @var{TAB}-width varies
with the @var{TAB}-position, e.g. with the left @var{margin} specified
by @option{-o} option.  With multicolumn output priority is given to
@samp{equal width of output columns} (a @acronym{POSIX} specification).
The @var{TAB}-width is fixed to the value of the first column and does
not change with different values of left @var{margin}.  That means a
fixed number of spaces is always printed in the place of the
@var{number-separator tab}.  The tabification depends upon the output
position.

@item -N @var{line_number}
@itemx --first-line-number=@var{line_number}
@opindex -N
@opindex --first-line-number
Start line counting with the number @var{line_number} at first line of
first page printed (in most cases not the first line of the input file).

@item -o @var{margin}
@itemx --indent=@var{margin}
@opindex -o
@opindex --indent
@cindex indenting lines
@cindex left margin
Indent each line with a margin @var{margin} spaces wide (default is zero).
The total page width is the size of the margin plus the @var{page_width}
set with the @option{-W/-w} option.  A limited overflow may occur with
numbered single column output (compare @option{-n} option).

@item -r
@itemx --no-file-warnings
@opindex -r
@opindex --no-file-warnings
Do not print a warning message when an argument @var{file} cannot be
opened.  (The exit status will still be nonzero, however.)

@item -s[@var{char}]
@itemx --separator[=@var{char}]
@opindex -s
@opindex --separator
Separate columns by a single character @var{char}.  The default for
@var{char} is the TAB character without @option{-w} and @samp{no
character} with @option{-w}.  Without @option{-s} the default separator
@samp{space} is set.  @option{-s[char]} turns off line truncation of all
three column options (@option{-COLUMN}|@option{-a -COLUMN}|@option{-m}) unless
@option{-w} is set.  This is a @acronym{POSIX}-compliant formulation.


@item -S @var{string}
@itemx --sep-string[=@var{string}]
@opindex -S
@opindex --sep-string
Use @var{string} to separate output columns.  The @option{-S} option doesn't
affect the @option{-W/-w} option, unlike the @option{-s} option which does.  It
does not affect line truncation or column alignment.
Without @option{-S}, and with @option{-J}, @command{pr} uses the default output
separator, TAB.
Without @option{-S} or @option{-J}, @command{pr} uses a @samp{space}
(same as @option{-S"@w{ }"}).  With @option{-S@var{string}},
@var{string} must be nonempty; @option{--sep-string} with no
@var{string} is equivalent to @option{--sep-string=""}.

On older systems, @command{pr} instead supports an obsolete option
@option{-S[@var{string}]}, where @var{string} is optional.  @acronym{POSIX}
1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance}) does not allow this older
usage.  To specify an empty @var{string} portably, use
@option{--sep-string}.

@item -t
@itemx --omit-header
@opindex -t
@opindex --omit-header
Do not print the usual header [and footer] on each page, and do not fill
out the bottom of pages (with blank lines or a form feed).  No page
structure is produced, but form feeds set in the input files are retained.
The predefined pagination is not changed.  @option{-t} or @option{-T} may be
useful together with other options; e.g.: @option{-t -e4}, expand TAB characters
in the input file to 4 spaces but don't make any other changes.  Use of
@option{-t} overrides @option{-h}.

@item -T
@itemx --omit-pagination
@opindex -T
@opindex --omit-pagination
Do not print header [and footer].  In addition eliminate all form feeds
set in the input files.

@item -v
@itemx --show-nonprinting
@opindex -v
@opindex --show-nonprinting
Print nonprinting characters in octal backslash notation.

@item -w @var{page_width}
@itemx --width=@var{page_width}
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
Set page width to @var{page_width} characters for multiple text-column
output only (default for @var{page_width} is 72).  @option{-s[CHAR]} turns
off the default page width and any line truncation and column alignment.
Lines of full length are merged, regardless of the column options
set.  No @var{page_width} setting is possible with single column output.
A @acronym{POSIX}-compliant formulation.

@item -W @var{page_width}
@itemx --page_width=@var{page_width}
@opindex -W
@opindex --page_width
Set the page width to @var{page_width} characters.  That's valid with and
without a column option.  Text lines are truncated, unless @option{-J}
is used.  Together with one of the three column options
(@option{-@var{column}}, @option{-a -@var{column}} or @option{-m}) column
alignment is always used.  The separator options @option{-S} or @option{-s}
don't affect the @option{-W} option.  Default is 72 characters.  Without
@option{-W @var{page_width}} and without any of the column options NO line
truncation is used (defined to keep downward compatibility and to meet
most frequent tasks).  That's equivalent to @option{-W 72 -J}.  The header
line is never truncated.

@end table


@node fold invocation
@section @command{fold}: Wrap input lines to fit in specified width

@pindex fold
@cindex wrapping long input lines
@cindex folding long input lines

@command{fold} writes each @var{file} (@option{-} means standard input), or
standard input if none are given, to standard output, breaking long
lines.  Synopsis:

@example
fold [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

By default, @command{fold} breaks lines wider than 80 columns.  The output
is split into as many lines as necessary.

@cindex screen columns
@command{fold} counts screen columns by default; thus, a tab may count more
than one column, backspace decreases the column count, and carriage
return sets the column to zero.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --bytes
@opindex -b
@opindex --bytes
Count bytes rather than columns, so that tabs, backspaces, and carriage
returns are each counted as taking up one column, just like other
characters.

@item -s
@itemx --spaces
@opindex -s
@opindex --spaces
Break at word boundaries: the line is broken after the last blank before
the maximum line length.  If the line contains no such blanks, the line
is broken at the maximum line length as usual.

@item -w @var{width}
@itemx --width=@var{width}
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
Use a maximum line length of @var{width} columns instead of 80.

On older systems, @command{fold} supports an obsolete option
@option{-@var{width}}.  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards
conformance}) does not allow this; use @option{-w @var{width}}
instead.

@end table


@node Output of parts of files
@chapter Output of parts of files

@cindex output of parts of files
@cindex parts of files, output of

These commands output pieces of the input.

@menu
* head invocation::             Output the first part of files.
* tail invocation::             Output the last part of files.
* split invocation::            Split a file into fixed-size pieces.
* csplit invocation::           Split a file into context-determined pieces.
@end menu

@node head invocation
@section @command{head}: Output the first part of files

@pindex head
@cindex initial part of files, outputting
@cindex first part of files, outputting

@command{head} prints the first part (10 lines by default) of each
@var{file}; it reads from standard input if no files are given or
when given a @var{file} of @option{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
head [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

If more than one @var{file} is specified, @command{head} prints a
one-line header consisting of
@example
==> @var{file name} <==
@end example
@noindent
before the output for each @var{file}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c @var{bytes}
@itemx --bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -c
@opindex --bytes
Print the first @var{bytes} bytes, instead of initial lines.  Appending
@samp{b} multiplies @var{bytes} by 512, @samp{k} by 1024, and @samp{m}
by 1048576.

@itemx -n @var{n}
@itemx --lines=@var{n}
@opindex -n
@opindex --lines
Output the first @var{n} lines.

@item -q
@itemx --quiet
@itemx --silent
@opindex -q
@opindex --quiet
@opindex --silent
Never print file name headers.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Always print file name headers.

@end table

On older systems, @command{head} supports an obsolete option
@option{-@var{count}@var{options}}, which is recognized only if it is
specified first.  @var{count} is a decimal number optionally followed
by a size letter (@samp{b}, @samp{k}, @samp{m}) as in @code{-c}, or
@samp{l} to mean count by lines, or other option letters (@samp{cqv}).
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance}) does not allow
this; use @option{-c @var{count}} or @option{-n @var{count}} instead.

@node tail invocation
@section @command{tail}: Output the last part of files

@pindex tail
@cindex last part of files, outputting

@command{tail} prints the last part (10 lines by default) of each
@var{file}; it reads from standard input if no files are given or
when given a @var{file} of @samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
tail [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

If more than one @var{file} is specified, @command{tail} prints a
one-line header consisting of
@example
==> @var{file name} <==
@end example
@noindent
before the output for each @var{file}.

@cindex BSD @command{tail}
@sc{gnu} @command{tail} can output any amount of data (some other versions of
@command{tail} cannot).  It also has no @option{-r} option (print in
reverse), since reversing a file is really a different job from printing
the end of a file; BSD @command{tail} (which is the one with @code{-r}) can
only reverse files that are at most as large as its buffer, which is
typically 32 KiB.  A more reliable and versatile way to reverse files is
the @sc{gnu} @command{tac} command.

If any option-argument is a number @var{n} starting with a @samp{+},
@command{tail} begins printing with the @var{n}th item from the start of
each file, instead of from the end.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c @var{bytes}
@itemx --bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -c
@opindex --bytes
Output the last @var{bytes} bytes, instead of final lines.  Appending
@samp{b} multiplies @var{bytes} by 512, @samp{k} by 1024, and @samp{m}
by 1048576.

@item -f
@itemx --follow[=@var{how}]
@opindex -f
@opindex --follow
@cindex growing files
@vindex name @r{follow option}
@vindex descriptor @r{follow option}
Loop forever trying to read more characters at the end of the file,
presumably because the file is growing.  This option is ignored when
reading from a pipe.
If more than one file is given, @command{tail} prints a header whenever it
gets output from a different file, to indicate which file that output is
from.

There are two ways to specify how you'd like to track files with this option,
but that difference is noticeable only when a followed file is removed or
renamed.
If you'd like to continue to track the end of a growing file even after
it has been unlinked, use @option{--follow=descriptor}.  This is the default
behavior, but it is not useful if you're tracking a log file that may be
rotated (removed or renamed, then reopened).  In that case, use
@option{--follow=name} to track the named file by reopening it periodically
to see if it has been removed and recreated by some other program.

No matter which method you use, if the tracked file is determined to have
shrunk, @command{tail} prints a message saying the file has been truncated
and resumes tracking the end of the file from the newly-determined endpoint.

When a file is removed, @command{tail}'s behavior depends on whether it is
following the name or the descriptor.  When following by name, tail can
detect that a file has been removed and gives a message to that effect,
and if @option{--retry} has been specified it will continue checking
periodically to see if the file reappears.
When following a descriptor, tail does not detect that the file has
been unlinked or renamed and issues no message;  even though the file
may no longer be accessible via its original name, it may still be
growing.

The option values @samp{descriptor} and @samp{name} may be specified only
with the long form of the option, not with @option{-f}.

@item -F
@opindex -F
This option is the same as @option{--follow=name --retry}.  That is, tail
will attempt to reopen a file when it is removed.  Should this fail, tail
will keep trying until it becomes accessible again.

@itemx --retry
@opindex --retry
This option is meaningful only when following by name.
Without this option, when tail encounters a file that doesn't
exist or is otherwise inaccessible, it reports that fact and
never checks it again.

@itemx --sleep-interval=@var{number}
@opindex --sleep-interval
Change the number of seconds to wait between iterations (the default is 1.0).
During one iteration, every specified file is checked to see if it has
Historical implementations of @command{tail} have required that
@var{number} be an integer.  However, GNU @command{tail} accepts
an arbitrary floating point number.

@itemx --pid=@var{pid}
@opindex --pid
When following by name or by descriptor, you may specify the process ID,
@var{pid}, of the sole writer of all @var{file} arguments.  Then, shortly
after that process terminates, tail will also terminate.  This will
work properly only if the writer and the tailing process are running on
the same machine.  For example, to save the output of a build in a file
and to watch the file grow, if you invoke @code{make} and @command{tail}
like this then the tail process will stop when your build completes.
Without this option, you would have had to kill the @code{tail -f}
process yourself.
@example
$ make >& makerr & tail --pid=$! -f makerr
@end example
If you specify a @var{pid} that is not in use or that does not correspond
to the process that is writing to the tailed files, then @command{tail}
may terminate long before any @var{file}s stop growing or it may not
terminate until long after the real writer has terminated.
Note that @option{--pid} cannot be supported on some systems; @command{tail}
will print a warning if this is the case.

@itemx --max-unchanged-stats=@var{n}
@opindex --max-unchanged-stats
When tailing a file by name, if there have been @var{n} (default
n=@value{DEFAULT_MAX_N_UNCHANGED_STATS_BETWEEN_OPENS}) consecutive
iterations for which the size has remained the same, then
@code{open}/@code{fstat} the file to determine if that file name is
still associated with the same device/inode-number pair as before.
When following a log file that is rotated, this is approximately the
number of seconds between when tail prints the last pre-rotation lines
and when it prints the lines that have accumulated in the new log file.
This option is meaningful only when following by name.

@itemx -n @var{n}
@itemx --lines=@var{n}
@opindex -n
@opindex --lines
Output the last @var{n} lines.

@item -q
@itemx --quiet
@itemx --silent
@opindex -q
@opindex --quiet
@opindex --silent
Never print file name headers.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Always print file name headers.

@end table

On older systems, @command{tail} supports an obsolete option
@option{-@var{count}@var{options}}, which is recognized only if it is
specified first.  @var{count} is a decimal number optionally followed
by a size letter (@samp{b}, @samp{k}, @samp{m}) as in @code{-c}, or
@samp{l} to mean count by lines, or other option letters
(@samp{cfqv}).  Some older @command{tail} implementations also support
an obsolete option @option{+@var{count}} with the same meaning as
@option{-+@var{count}}.  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards
conformance}) does not allow these options; use @option{-c
@var{count}} or @option{-n @var{count}} instead.

@node split invocation
@section @command{split}: Split a file into fixed-size pieces

@pindex split
@cindex splitting a file into pieces
@cindex pieces, splitting a file into

@command{split} creates output files containing consecutive sections of
@var{input} (standard input if none is given or @var{input} is
@samp{-}).  Synopsis:

@example
split [@var{option}] [@var{input} [@var{prefix}]]
@end example

By default, @command{split} puts 1000 lines of @var{input} (or whatever is
left over for the last section), into each output file.

@cindex output file name prefix
The output files' names consist of @var{prefix} (@samp{x} by default)
followed by a group of letters (@samp{aa}, @samp{ab}, @dots{} by default),
such that concatenating the output files in sorted order by file name produces
the original input file.  If the output file names are exhausted,
@command{split} reports an error without deleting the output files
that it did create.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a @var{length}
@itemx --suffix-length=@var{length}
@opindex -a
@opindex --suffix-length
Use suffixes of length @var{length}.  The default @var{length} is 2.

@item -l @var{lines}
@itemx --lines=@var{lines}
@opindex -l
@opindex --lines
Put @var{lines} lines of @var{input} into each output file.

On older systems, @command{split} supports an obsolete option
@option{-@var{lines}}.  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards
conformance}) does not allow this; use @option{-l @var{lines}}
instead.

@item -b @var{bytes}
@itemx --bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -b
@opindex --bytes
Put the first @var{bytes} bytes of @var{input} into each output file.
Appending @samp{b} multiplies @var{bytes} by 512, @samp{k} by 1024, and
@samp{m} by 1048576.

@item -C @var{bytes}
@itemx --line-bytes=@var{bytes}
@opindex -C
@opindex --line-bytes
Put into each output file as many complete lines of @var{input} as
possible without exceeding @var{bytes} bytes.  For lines longer than
@var{bytes} bytes, put @var{bytes} bytes into each output file until
less than @var{bytes} bytes of the line are left, then continue
normally.  @var{bytes} has the same format as for the @option{--bytes}
option.

@itemx --verbose
@opindex --verbose
Write a diagnostic to standard error just before each output file is opened.

@end table


@node csplit invocation
@section @command{csplit}: Split a file into context-determined pieces

@pindex csplit
@cindex context splitting
@cindex splitting a file into pieces by context

@command{csplit} creates zero or more output files containing sections of
@var{input} (standard input if @var{input} is @samp{-}).  Synopsis:

@example
csplit [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{input} @var{pattern}@dots{}
@end example

The contents of the output files are determined by the @var{pattern}
arguments, as detailed below.  An error occurs if a @var{pattern}
argument refers to a nonexistent line of the input file (e.g., if no
remaining line matches a given regular expression).  After every
@var{pattern} has been matched, any remaining input is copied into one
last output file.

By default, @command{csplit} prints the number of bytes written to each
output file after it has been created.

The types of pattern arguments are:

@table @samp

@item @var{n}
Create an output file containing the input up to but not including line
@var{n} (a positive integer).  If followed by a repeat count, also
create an output file containing the next @var{line} lines of the input
file once for each repeat.

@item /@var{regexp}/[@var{offset}]
Create an output file containing the current line up to (but not
including) the next line of the input file that contains a match for
@var{regexp}.  The optional @var{offset} is a @samp{+} or @samp{-}
followed by a positive integer.  If it is given, the input up to the
matching line plus or minus @var{offset} is put into the output file,
and the line after that begins the next section of input.

@item %@var{regexp}%[@var{offset}]
Like the previous type, except that it does not create an output
file, so that section of the input file is effectively ignored.

@item @{@var{repeat-count}@}
Repeat the previous pattern @var{repeat-count} additional
times. @var{repeat-count} can either be a positive integer or an
asterisk, meaning repeat as many times as necessary until the input is
exhausted.

@end table

The output files' names consist of a prefix (@samp{xx} by default)
followed by a suffix.  By default, the suffix is an ascending sequence
of two-digit decimal numbers from @samp{00} to @samp{99}.  In any case,
concatenating the output files in sorted order by filename produces the
original input file.

By default, if @command{csplit} encounters an error or receives a hangup,
interrupt, quit, or terminate signal, it removes any output files
that it has created so far before it exits.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -f @var{prefix}
@itemx --prefix=@var{prefix}
@opindex -f
@opindex --prefix
@cindex output file name prefix
Use @var{prefix} as the output file name prefix.

@item -b @var{suffix}
@itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
@opindex -b
@opindex --suffix
@cindex output file name suffix
Use @var{suffix} as the output file name suffix.  When this option is
specified, the suffix string must include exactly one
@code{printf(3)}-style conversion specification, possibly including
format specification flags, a field width, a precision specifications,
or all of these kinds of modifiers.  The format letter must convert a
binary integer argument to readable form; thus, only @samp{d}, @samp{i},
@samp{u}, @samp{o}, @samp{x}, and @samp{X} conversions are allowed.  The
entire @var{suffix} is given (with the current output file number) to
@code{sprintf(3)} to form the file name suffixes for each of the
individual output files in turn.  If this option is used, the
@option{--digits} option is ignored.

@item -n @var{digits}
@itemx --digits=@var{digits}
@opindex -n
@opindex --digits
Use output file names containing numbers that are @var{digits} digits
long instead of the default 2.

@item -k
@itemx --keep-files
@opindex -k
@opindex --keep-files
Do not remove output files when errors are encountered.

@item -z
@itemx --elide-empty-files
@opindex -z
@opindex --elide-empty-files
Suppress the generation of zero-length output files.  (In cases where
the section delimiters of the input file are supposed to mark the first
lines of each of the sections, the first output file will generally be a
zero-length file unless you use this option.)  The output file sequence
numbers always run consecutively starting from 0, even when this option
is specified.

@item -s
@itemx -q
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -s
@opindex -q
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
Do not print counts of output file sizes.

@end table


@node Summarizing files
@chapter Summarizing files

@cindex summarizing files

These commands generate just a few numbers representing entire
contents of files.

@menu
* wc invocation::               Print byte, word, and line counts.
* sum invocation::              Print checksum and block counts.
* cksum invocation::            Print CRC checksum and byte counts.
* md5sum invocation::           Print or check message-digests.
@end menu


@node wc invocation
@section @code{wc}: Print byte, word, and line counts

@pindex wc
@cindex byte count
@cindex character count
@cindex word count
@cindex line count

@code{wc} counts the number of bytes, characters, whitespace-separated
words, and newlines in each given @var{file}, or standard input if none
are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
wc [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@cindex total counts
@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
@code{wc} prints one line of counts for each file, and if the file was
given as an argument, it prints the file name following the counts.  If
more than one @var{file} is given, @code{wc} prints a final line
containing the cumulative counts, with the file name @file{total}.  The
counts are printed in this order: newlines, words, characters, bytes.
By default, each count is output right-justified in a 7-byte field with
one space between fields so that the numbers and file names line up nicely
in columns.  However, @acronym{POSIX} requires that there be exactly one space
separating columns.  You can make @code{wc} use the @acronym{POSIX}-mandated
output format by setting the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} environment variable.

By default, @code{wc} prints three counts: the newline, words, and byte
counts.  Options can specify that only certain counts be printed.
Options do not undo others previously given, so

@example
wc --bytes --words
@end example

@noindent
prints both the byte counts and the word counts.

With the @code{--max-line-length} option, @code{wc} prints the length
of the longest line per file, and if there is more than one file it
prints the maximum (not the sum) of those lengths.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --bytes
@opindex -c
@opindex --bytes
Print only the byte counts.

@item -m
@itemx --chars
@opindex -m
@opindex --chars
Print only the character counts.

@item -w
@itemx --words
@opindex -w
@opindex --words
Print only the word counts.

@item -l
@itemx --lines
@opindex -l
@opindex --lines
Print only the newline counts.

@item -L
@itemx --max-line-length
@opindex -L
@opindex --max-line-length
Print only the maximum line lengths.

@end table


@node sum invocation
@section @command{sum}: Print checksum and block counts

@pindex sum
@cindex 16-bit checksum
@cindex checksum, 16-bit

@command{sum} computes a 16-bit checksum for each given @var{file}, or
standard input if none are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
sum [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{sum} prints the checksum for each @var{file} followed by the
number of blocks in the file (rounded up).  If more than one @var{file}
is given, file names are also printed (by default).  (With the
@option{--sysv} option, corresponding file names are printed when there is
at least one file argument.)

By default, @sc{gnu} @command{sum} computes checksums using an algorithm
compatible with BSD @command{sum} and prints file sizes in units of
1024-byte blocks.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -r
@opindex -r
@cindex BSD @command{sum}
Use the default (BSD compatible) algorithm.  This option is included for
compatibility with the System V @command{sum}.  Unless @option{-s} was also
given, it has no effect.

@item -s
@itemx --sysv
@opindex -s
@opindex --sysv
@cindex System V @command{sum}
Compute checksums using an algorithm compatible with System V
@command{sum}'s default, and print file sizes in units of 512-byte blocks.

@end table

@command{sum} is provided for compatibility; the @code{cksum} program (see
next section) is preferable in new applications.


@node cksum invocation
@section @command{cksum}: Print CRC checksum and byte counts

@pindex cksum
@cindex cyclic redundancy check
@cindex CRC checksum

@command{cksum} computes a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) checksum for each
given @var{file}, or standard input if none are given or for a
@var{file} of @samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
cksum [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{cksum} prints the CRC checksum for each file along with the number
of bytes in the file, and the filename unless no arguments were given.

@command{cksum} is typically used to ensure that files
transferred by unreliable means (e.g., netnews) have not been corrupted,
by comparing the @command{cksum} output for the received files with the
@command{cksum} output for the original files (typically given in the
distribution).

The CRC algorithm is specified by the @acronym{POSIX} standard.  It is not
compatible with the BSD or System V @command{sum} algorithms (see the
previous section); it is more robust.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.


@node md5sum invocation
@section @command{md5sum}: Print or check message-digests

@pindex md5sum
@cindex 128-bit checksum
@cindex checksum, 128-bit
@cindex fingerprint, 128-bit
@cindex message-digest, 128-bit

@command{md5sum} computes a 128-bit checksum (or @dfn{fingerprint} or
@dfn{message-digest}) for each specified @var{file}.
If a @var{file} is specified as @samp{-} or if no files are given
@command{md5sum} computes the checksum for the standard input.
@command{md5sum} can also determine whether a file and checksum are
consistent. Synopses:

@example
md5sum [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
md5sum [@var{option}]@dots{} --check [@var{file}]
@end example

For each @var{file}, @samp{md5sum} outputs the MD5 checksum, a flag
indicating a binary or text input file, and the filename.
If @var{file} is omitted or specified as @samp{-}, standard input is read.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --binary
@opindex -b
@opindex --binary
@cindex binary input files
Treat all input files as binary.  This option has no effect on Unix
systems, since they don't distinguish between binary and text files.
This option is useful on systems that have different internal and
external character representations.  On MS-DOS and MS-Windows, this is
the default.

@item -c
@itemx --check
Read filenames and checksum information from the single @var{file}
(or from stdin if no @var{file} was specified) and report whether
each named file and the corresponding checksum data are consistent.
The input to this mode of @command{md5sum} is usually the output of
a prior, checksum-generating run of @samp{md5sum}.
Each valid line of input consists of an MD5 checksum, a binary/text
flag, and then a filename.
Binary files are marked with @samp{*}, text with @samp{ }.
For each such line, @command{md5sum} reads the named file and computes its
MD5 checksum.  Then, if the computed message digest does not match the
one on the line with the filename, the file is noted as having
failed the test.  Otherwise, the file passes the test.
By default, for each valid line, one line is written to standard
output indicating whether the named file passed the test.
After all checks have been performed, if there were any failures,
a warning is issued to standard error.
Use the @option{--status} option to inhibit that output.
If any listed file cannot be opened or read, if any valid line has
an MD5 checksum inconsistent with the associated file, or if no valid
line is found, @command{md5sum} exits with nonzero status.  Otherwise,
it exits successfully.

@itemx --status
@opindex --status
@cindex verifying MD5 checksums
This option is useful only when verifying checksums.
When verifying checksums, don't generate the default one-line-per-file
diagnostic and don't output the warning summarizing any failures.
Failures to open or read a file still evoke individual diagnostics to
standard error.
If all listed files are readable and are consistent with the associated
MD5 checksums, exit successfully.  Otherwise exit with a status code
indicating there was a failure.

@item -t
@itemx --text
@opindex -t
@opindex --text
@cindex text input files
Treat all input files as text files.  This is the reverse of
@option{--binary}.

@item -w
@itemx --warn
@opindex -w
@opindex --warn
@cindex verifying MD5 checksums
When verifying checksums, warn about improperly formatted MD5 checksum lines.
This option is useful only if all but a few lines in the checked input
are valid.

@end table


@node Operating on sorted files
@chapter Operating on sorted files

@cindex operating on sorted files
@cindex sorted files, operations on

These commands work with (or produce) sorted files.

@menu
* sort invocation::             Sort text files.
* uniq invocation::             Uniquify files.
* comm invocation::             Compare two sorted files line by line.
* ptx invocation::              Produce a permuted index of file contents.
* tsort invocation::            Topological sort.
* tsort background::            Where tsort came from.
@end menu


@node sort invocation
@section @command{sort}: Sort text files

@pindex sort
@cindex sorting files

@command{sort} sorts, merges, or compares all the lines from the given
files, or standard input if none are given or for a @var{file} of
@samp{-}.  By default, @command{sort} writes the results to standard
output.  Synopsis:

@example
sort [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{sort} has three modes of operation: sort (the default), merge,
and check for sortedness.  The following options change the operation
mode:

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --check
@opindex -c
@opindex --check
@cindex checking for sortedness
Check whether the given files are already sorted: if they are not all
sorted, print an error message and exit with a status of 1.
Otherwise, exit successfully.

@item -m
@itemx --merge
@opindex -m
@opindex --merge
@cindex merging sorted files
Merge the given files by sorting them as a group.  Each input file must
always be individually sorted.  It always works to sort instead of
merge; merging is provided because it is faster, in the case where it
works.

@end table

@vindex LC_ALL
@vindex LC_COLLATE
A pair of lines is compared as follows: if any key fields have
been specified, @command{sort} compares each pair of fields, in the
order specified on the command line, according to the associated
ordering options, until a difference is found or no fields are left.
Unless otherwise specified, all comparisons use the character collating
sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.  @footnote{If you
use a non-@acronym{POSIX} locale (e.g., by setting @env{LC_ALL}
to @samp{en_US}), then @command{sort} may produce output that is sorted
differently than you're accustomed to.  In that case, set the @env{LC_ALL}
environment variable to @samp{C}.  Note that setting only @env{LC_COLLATE}
has two problems.  First, it is ineffective if @env{LC_ALL} is also set.
Second, it has undefined behavior if @env{LC_CTYPE} (or @env{LANG}, if
@env{LC_CTYPE} is unset) is set to an incompatible value.  For example,
you get undefined behavior if @env{LC_CTYPE} is @code{ja_JP.PCK} but
@env{LC_COLLATE} is @code{en_US.UTF-8}. }

If any of the global options @samp{bdfgiMnr} are given but no key fields
are specified, @command{sort} compares the entire lines according to the
global options.

Finally, as a last resort when all keys compare equal (or if no ordering
options were specified at all), @command{sort} compares the entire lines.
The last resort comparison honors the @option{--reverse} (@option{-r})
global option.  The @option{--stable} (@option{-s}) option disables this
last-resort comparison so that lines in which all fields compare equal
are left in their original relative order.  If no fields or global
options are specified, @option{--stable} (@option{-s}) has no effect.

@sc{gnu} @command{sort} (as specified for all @sc{gnu} utilities) has no limits on
input line length or restrictions on bytes allowed within lines.  In
addition, if the final byte of an input file is not a newline, @sc{gnu}
@command{sort} silently supplies one.  A line's trailing newline is not
part of the line for comparison purposes.

Upon any error, @command{sort} exits with a status of @samp{2}.

@vindex TMPDIR
If the environment variable @env{TMPDIR} is set, @command{sort} uses its
value as the directory for temporary files instead of @file{/tmp}.  The
@option{--temporary-directory} (@option{-T}) option in turn overrides
the environment variable.


The following options affect the ordering of output lines.  They may be
specified globally or as part of a specific key field.  If no key
fields are specified, global options apply to comparison of entire
lines; otherwise the global options are inherited by key fields that do
not specify any special options of their own.  In pre-@acronym{POSIX}
versions of @command{sort}, global options affect only later key fields,
so portable shell scripts should specify global options first.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --ignore-leading-blanks
@opindex -b
@opindex --ignore-leading-blanks
@cindex blanks, ignoring leading
@vindex LC_CTYPE
Ignore leading blanks when finding sort keys in each line.
The @env{LC_CTYPE} locale determines character types.

@item -d
@itemx --dictionary-order
@opindex -d
@opindex --dictionary-order
@cindex dictionary order
@cindex phone directory order
@cindex telephone directory order
@vindex LC_CTYPE
Sort in @dfn{phone directory} order: ignore all characters except
letters, digits and blanks when sorting.
The @env{LC_CTYPE} locale determines character types.

@item -f
@itemx --ignore-case
@opindex -f
@opindex --ignore-case
@cindex ignoring case
@cindex case folding
@vindex LC_CTYPE
Fold lowercase characters into the equivalent uppercase characters when
comparing so that, for example, @samp{b} and @samp{B} sort as equal.
The @env{LC_CTYPE} locale determines character types.

@item -g
@itemx --general-numeric-sort
@opindex -g
@opindex --general-numeric-sort
@cindex general numeric sort
@vindex LC_NUMERIC
Sort numerically, using the standard C function @code{strtod} to convert
a prefix of each line to a double-precision floating point number.
This allows floating point numbers to be specified in scientific notation,
like @code{1.0e-34} and @code{10e100}.
The @env{LC_NUMERIC} locale determines the decimal-point character.
Do not report overflow, underflow, or conversion errors.
Use the following collating sequence:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Lines that do not start with numbers (all considered to be equal).
@item
NaNs (``Not a Number'' values, in IEEE floating point arithmetic)
in a consistent but machine-dependent order.
@item
Minus infinity.
@item
Finite numbers in ascending numeric order (with @math{-0} and @math{+0} equal).
@item
Plus infinity.
@end itemize

Use this option only if there is no alternative; it is much slower than
@option{--numeric-sort} (@option{-n}) and it can lose information when
converting to floating point.

@item -i
@itemx --ignore-nonprinting
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-nonprinting
@cindex nonprinting characters, ignoring
@cindex unprintable characters, ignoring
@vindex LC_CTYPE
Ignore nonprinting characters.
The @env{LC_CTYPE} locale determines character types.

@item -M
@itemx --month-sort
@opindex -M
@opindex --month-sort
@cindex months, sorting by
@vindex LC_TIME
An initial string, consisting of any amount of whitespace, followed
by a month name abbreviation, is folded to UPPER case and
compared in the order @samp{JAN} < @samp{FEB} < @dots{} < @samp{DEC}.
Invalid names compare low to valid names.  The @env{LC_TIME} locale
category determines the month spellings.

@item -n
@itemx --numeric-sort
@opindex -n
@opindex --numeric-sort
@cindex numeric sort
@vindex LC_NUMERIC
Sort numerically: the number begins each line; specifically, it consists
of optional whitespace, an optional @samp{-} sign, and zero or more
digits possibly separated by thousands separators, optionally followed
by a decimal-point character and zero or more digits.  The @env{LC_NUMERIC}
locale specifies the decimal-point character and thousands separator.

Numeric sort uses what might be considered an unconventional method to
compare strings representing floating point numbers.  Rather than first
converting each string to the C @code{double} type and then comparing
those values, @command{sort} aligns the decimal-point characters in the
two strings and compares the strings a character at a time.  One benefit
of using this approach is its speed.  In practice this is much more
efficient than performing the two corresponding string-to-double (or
even string-to-integer) conversions and then comparing doubles.  In
addition, there is no corresponding loss of precision.  Converting each
string to @code{double} before comparison would limit precision to about
16 digits on most systems.

Neither a leading @samp{+} nor exponential notation is recognized.
To compare such strings numerically, use the
@option{--general-numeric-sort} (@option{-g}) option.

@item -r
@itemx --reverse
@opindex -r
@opindex --reverse
@cindex reverse sorting
Reverse the result of comparison, so that lines with greater key values
appear earlier in the output instead of later.

@end table

Other options are:

@table @samp

@item -o @var{output-file}
@itemx --output=@var{output-file}
@opindex -o
@opindex --output
@cindex overwriting of input, allowed
Write output to @var{output-file} instead of standard output.
If necessary, @command{sort} reads input before opening
@var{output-file}, so you can safely sort a file in place by using
commands like @code{sort -o F F} and @code{cat F | sort -o F}.

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
On newer systems, @option{-o} cannot appear after an input file if
@env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, e.g., @samp{sort F -o F}.  Portable
scripts should specify @option{-o @var{output-file}} before any input
files.

@item -S @var{size}
@itemx --buffer-size=@var{size}
@opindex -S
@opindex --buffer-size
@cindex size for main memory sorting
Use a main-memory sort buffer of the given @var{size}.  By default,
@var{size} is in units of 1024 bytes.  Appending @samp{%} causes
@var{size} to be interpreted as a percentage of physical memory.
Appending @samp{K} multiplies @var{size} by 1024 (the default),
@samp{M} by 1,048,576, @samp{G} by 1,073,741,824, and so on for
@samp{T}, @samp{P}, @samp{E}, @samp{Z}, and @samp{Y}.  Appending
@samp{b} causes @var{size} to be interpreted as a byte count, with no
multiplication.

This option can improve the performance of @command{sort} by causing it
to start with a larger or smaller sort buffer than the default.
However, this option affects only the initial buffer size.  The buffer
grows beyond @var{size} if @command{sort} encounters input lines larger
than @var{size}.

@item -t @var{separator}
@itemx --field-separator=@var{separator}
@opindex -t
@opindex --field-separator
@cindex field separator character
Use character @var{separator} as the field separator when finding the
sort keys in each line.  By default, fields are separated by the empty
string between a non-whitespace character and a whitespace character.
That is, given the input line @w{@samp{ foo bar}}, @command{sort} breaks it
into fields @w{@samp{ foo}} and @w{@samp{ bar}}.  The field separator is
not considered to be part of either the field preceding or the field
following.  But note that sort fields that extend to the end of the line,
as @option{-k 2}, or sort fields consisting of a range, as @option{-k 2,3},
retain the field separators present between the endpoints of the range.

@item -T @var{tempdir}
@itemx --temporary-directory=@var{tempdir}
@opindex -T
@opindex --temporary-directory
@cindex temporary directory
@vindex TMPDIR
Use directory @var{tempdir} to store temporary files, overriding the
@env{TMPDIR} environment variable.  If this option is given more than
once, temporary files are stored in all the directories given.  If you
have a large sort or merge that is I/O-bound, you can often improve
performance by using this option to specify directories on different
disks and controllers.

@item -u
@itemx --unique
@opindex -u
@opindex --unique
@cindex uniquifying output

Normally, output only the first of a sequence of lines that compare
equal.  For the @option{--check} (@option{-c}) option,
check that no pair of consecutive lines compares equal.

@item -k @var{pos1}[,@var{pos2}]
@itemx --key=@var{pos1}[,@var{pos2}]
@opindex -k
@opindex --key
@cindex sort field
Specify a sort field that consists of the part of the line between
@var{pos1} and @var{pos2} (or the end of the line, if @var{pos2} is
omitted), @emph{inclusive}.  Fields and character positions are numbered
starting with 1.  So to sort on the second field, you'd use
@option{--key=2,2} (@option{-k 2,2}).  See below for more examples.

@item -z
@itemx --zero-terminated
@opindex -z
@opindex --zero-terminated
@cindex sort zero-terminated lines
Treat the input as a set of lines, each terminated by a zero byte
(@acronym{ASCII} @sc{nul} (Null) character) instead of an
@acronym{ASCII} @sc{lf} (Line Feed).
This option can be useful in conjunction with @samp{perl -0} or
@samp{find -print0} and @samp{xargs -0} which do the same in order to
reliably handle arbitrary pathnames (even those which contain Line Feed
characters.)

@end table

Historical (BSD and System V) implementations of @command{sort} have
differed in their interpretation of some options, particularly
@option{-b}, @option{-f}, and @option{-n}.  @sc{gnu} sort follows the @acronym{POSIX}
behavior, which is usually (but not always!) like the System V behavior.
According to @acronym{POSIX}, @option{-n} no longer implies @option{-b}.  For
consistency, @option{-M} has been changed in the same way.  This may
affect the meaning of character positions in field specifications in
obscure cases.  The only fix is to add an explicit @option{-b}.

A position in a sort field specified with the @option{-k}
option has the form @samp{@var{f}.@var{c}}, where @var{f} is the number
of the field to use and @var{c} is the number of the first character
from the beginning of the field.  In a start position, an omitted
@samp{.@var{c}} stands for the field's first character.  In an end
position, an omitted or zero @samp{.@var{c}} stands for the field's
last character.  If the
@option{-b} option was specified, the @samp{.@var{c}} part of a field
specification is counted from the first nonblank character of the field.

A sort key position may also have any of the option letters @samp{Mbdfinr}
appended to it, in which case the global ordering options are not used
for that particular field.  The @option{-b} option may be independently
attached to either or both of the start and
end positions of a field specification, and if it is inherited
from the global options it will be attached to both.
Keys may span multiple fields.

On older systems, @command{sort} supports an obsolete origin-zero
syntax @samp{+@var{pos1} [-@var{pos2}]} for specifying sort keys.
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance}) does not allow
this; use @option{-k} instead.

Here are some examples to illustrate various combinations of options.

@itemize @bullet

@item
Sort in descending (reverse) numeric order.

@example
sort -nr
@end example

@item
Sort alphabetically, omitting the first and second fields.
This uses a single key composed of the characters beginning
at the start of field three and extending to the end of each line.

@example
sort -k 3
@end example

@item
Sort numerically on the second field and resolve ties by sorting
alphabetically on the third and fourth characters of field five.
Use @samp{:} as the field delimiter.

@example
sort -t : -k 2,2n -k 5.3,5.4
@end example

Note that if you had written @option{-k 2} instead of @option{-k 2,2}
@command{sort} would have used all characters beginning in the second field
and extending to the end of the line as the primary @emph{numeric}
key.  For the large majority of applications, treating keys spanning
more than one field as numeric will not do what you expect.

Also note that the @samp{n} modifier was applied to the field-end
specifier for the first key.  It would have been equivalent to
specify @option{-k 2n,2} or @option{-k 2n,2n}.  All modifiers except
@samp{b} apply to the associated @emph{field}, regardless of whether
the modifier character is attached to the field-start and/or the
field-end part of the key specifier.

@item
Sort the password file on the fifth field and ignore any
leading white space.  Sort lines with equal values in field five
on the numeric user ID in field three.

@example
sort -t : -k 5b,5 -k 3,3n /etc/passwd
@end example

An alternative is to use the global numeric modifier @option{-n}.

@example
sort -t : -n -k 5b,5 -k 3,3 /etc/passwd
@end example

@item
Generate a tags file in case-insensitive sorted order.

@smallexample
find src -type f -print0 | sort -t / -z -f | xargs -0 etags --append
@end smallexample

The use of @option{-print0}, @option{-z}, and @option{-0} in this case means
that pathnames that contain Line Feed characters will not get broken up
by the sort operation.

Finally, to ignore both leading and trailing white space, you
could have applied the @samp{b} modifier to the field-end specifier
for the first key,

@example
sort -t : -n -k 5b,5b -k 3,3 /etc/passwd
@end example

or by using the global @option{-b} modifier instead of @option{-n}
and an explicit @samp{n} with the second key specifier.

@example
sort -t : -b -k 5,5 -k 3,3n /etc/passwd
@end example

@c This example is a bit contrived and needs more explanation.
@c @item
@c Sort records separated by an arbitrary string by using a pipe to convert
@c each record delimiter string to @samp{\0}, then using sort's -z option,
@c and converting each @samp{\0} back to the original record delimiter.
@c
@c @example
@c printf 'c\n\nb\n\na\n'|perl -0pe 's/\n\n/\n\0/g'|sort -z|perl -0pe 's/\0/\n/g'
@c @end example

@end itemize


@node uniq invocation
@section @command{uniq}: Uniquify files

@pindex uniq
@cindex uniquify files

@command{uniq} writes the unique lines in the given @file{input}, or
standard input if nothing is given or for an @var{input} name of
@samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
uniq [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{input} [@var{output}]]
@end example

By default, @command{uniq} prints the unique lines in a sorted file, i.e.,
discards all but one of identical successive lines.  Optionally, it can
instead show only lines that appear exactly once, or lines that appear
more than once.

The input need not be sorted, but duplicate input lines are detected
only if they are adjacent.  If you want to discard non-adjacent
duplicate lines, perhaps you want to use @code{sort -u}.

@vindex LC_COLLATE
Comparisons use the character collating sequence specified by the
@env{LC_COLLATE} locale category.

If no @var{output} file is specified, @command{uniq} writes to standard
output.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -f @var{n}
@itemx --skip-fields=@var{n}
@opindex -f
@opindex --skip-fields
Skip @var{n} fields on each line before checking for uniqueness.  Fields
are sequences of non-space non-tab characters that are separated from
each other by at least one space or tab.

On older systems, @command{uniq} supports an obsolete option
@option{-@var{n}}.  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance})
does not allow this; use @option{-f @var{n}} instead.

@item -s @var{n}
@itemx --skip-chars=@var{n}
@opindex -s
@opindex --skip-chars
Skip @var{n} characters before checking for uniqueness.  If you use both
the field and character skipping options, fields are skipped over first.

On older systems, @command{uniq} supports an obsolete option
@option{+@var{n}}.  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance})
does not allow this; use @option{-s @var{n}} instead.

@item -c
@itemx --count
@opindex -c
@opindex --count
Print the number of times each line occurred along with the line.

@item -i
@itemx --ignore-case
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-case
Ignore differences in case when comparing lines.

@item -d
@itemx --repeated
@opindex -d
@opindex --repeated
@cindex duplicate lines, outputting
Print one copy of each duplicate line.

@item -D
@itemx --all-repeated[=@var{delimit-method}]
@opindex -D
@opindex --all-repeated
@cindex all duplicate lines, outputting
Print all copies of each duplicate line.
This option is useful mainly in conjunction with other options e.g.,
to ignore case or to compare only selected fields.
The optional @var{delimit-method} tells how to delimit
groups of duplicate lines, and must be one of the following:

@table @samp

@item none
Do not delimit groups of duplicate lines.
This is equivalent to @option{--all-repeated} (@option{-D}).

@item prepend
Output a newline before each group of duplicate lines.

@item separate
Separate groups of duplicate lines with a single newline.
This is the same as using @samp{prepend}, except that
there is no newline before the first group, and hence
may be better suited for output direct to users.
@end table

Note that when groups are delimited and the input stream contains
two or more consecutive blank lines, then the output is ambiguous.
To avoid that, filter the input through @samp{tr -s '\n'} to replace
each sequence of consecutive newlines with a single newline.

This is a @sc{gnu} extension.
@c FIXME: give an example showing *how* it's useful

@item -u
@itemx --unique
@opindex -u
@opindex --unique
@cindex unique lines, outputting
Print non-duplicate lines.

@item -w @var{n}
@itemx --check-chars=@var{n}
@opindex -w
@opindex --check-chars
Compare @var{n} characters on each line (after skipping any specified
fields and characters).  By default the entire rest of the lines are
compared.

@end table


@node comm invocation
@section @command{comm}: Compare two sorted files line by line

@pindex comm
@cindex line-by-line comparison
@cindex comparing sorted files

@command{comm} writes to standard output lines that are common, and lines
that are unique, to two input files; a file name of @samp{-} means
standard input.  Synopsis:

@example
comm [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file1} @var{file2}
@end example

@vindex LC_COLLATE
Before @command{comm} can be used, the input files must be sorted using the
collating sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.
If an input file ends in a non-newline
character, a newline is silently appended.  The @command{sort} command with
no options always outputs a file that is suitable input to @command{comm}.

@cindex differing lines
@cindex common lines
With no options, @command{comm} produces three column output.  Column one
contains lines unique to @var{file1}, column two contains lines unique
to @var{file2}, and column three contains lines common to both files.
Columns are separated by a single TAB character.
@c FIXME: when there's an option to supply an alternative separator
@c string, append `by default' to the above sentence.

@opindex -1
@opindex -2
@opindex -3
The options @option{-1}, @option{-2}, and @option{-3} suppress printing of
the corresponding columns.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

Unlike some other comparison utilities, @command{comm} has an exit
status that does not depend on the result of the comparison.
Upon normal completion @command{comm} produces an exit code of zero.
If there is an error it exits with nonzero status.


@node tsort invocation
@section @command{tsort}: Topological sort

@pindex tsort
@cindex topological sort

@command{tsort} performs a topological sort on the given @var{file}, or
standard input if no input file is given or for a @var{file} of
@samp{-}.  For more details and some history, see @ref{tsort background}.
Synopsis:

@example
tsort [@var{option}] [@var{file}]
@end example

@command{tsort} reads its input as pairs of strings, separated by blanks,
indicating a partial ordering.  The output is a total ordering that
corresponds to the given partial ordering.

For example

@example
tsort <<EOF
a b c
d
e f
b c d e
EOF
@end example

@noindent
will produce the output

@example
a
b
c
d
e
f
@end example

Consider a more realistic example.
You have a large set of functions all in one file, and they may all be
declared static except one.  Currently that one (say @code{main}) is the
first function defined in the file, and the ones it calls directly follow
it, followed by those they call, etc.  Let's say that you are determined
to take advantage of prototypes, so you have to choose between declaring
all of those functions (which means duplicating a lot of information from
the definitions) and rearranging the functions so that as many as possible
are defined before they are used.  One way to automate the latter process
is to get a list for each function of the functions it calls directly.
Many programs can generate such lists.  They describe a call graph.
Consider the following list, in which a given line indicates that the
function on the left calls the one on the right directly.

@example
main parse_options
main tail_file
main tail_forever
tail_file pretty_name
tail_file write_header
tail_file tail
tail_forever recheck
tail_forever pretty_name
tail_forever write_header
tail_forever dump_remainder
tail tail_lines
tail tail_bytes
tail_lines start_lines
tail_lines dump_remainder
tail_lines file_lines
tail_lines pipe_lines
tail_bytes xlseek
tail_bytes start_bytes
tail_bytes dump_remainder
tail_bytes pipe_bytes
file_lines dump_remainder
recheck pretty_name
@end example

then you can use @command{tsort} to produce an ordering of those
functions that satisfies your requirement.

@example
example$ tsort call-graph | tac
dump_remainder
start_lines
file_lines
pipe_lines
xlseek
start_bytes
pipe_bytes
tail_lines
tail_bytes
pretty_name
write_header
tail
recheck
parse_options
tail_file
tail_forever
main
@end example

@command{tsort} detects any cycles in the input and writes the first cycle
encountered to standard error.

Note that for a given partial ordering, generally there is no unique
total ordering.  In the context of the call graph above, the function
@code{parse_options} may be placed anywhere in the list as long as it
precedes @code{main}.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@node tsort background
@section @command{tsort}: Background

@command{tsort} exists because very early versions of the Unix linker processed
an archive file exactly once, and in order.  As @code{ld} read each object in
the archive, it decided whether it was needed in the program based on
whether it defined any symbols which were undefined at that point in
the link.

This meant that dependencies within the archive had to be handled
specially.  For example, @code{scanf} probably calls @code{read}.  That means
that in a single pass through an archive, it was important for @code{scanf.o}
to appear before read.o, because otherwise a program which calls
@code{scanf} but not @code{read} might end up with an unexpected unresolved
reference to @code{read}.

The way to address this problem was to first generate a set of
dependencies of one object file on another.  This was done by a shell
script called @code{lorder}.  The GNU tools don't provide a version of
lorder, as far as I know, but you can still find it in BSD
distributions.

Then you ran @command{tsort} over the @code{lorder} output, and you used the
resulting sort to define the order in which you added objects to the archive.

This whole procedure has been obsolete since about 1980, because
Unix archives now contain a symbol table (traditionally built by
@code{ranlib}, now generally built by @code{ar} itself), and the Unix
linker uses the symbol table to effectively make multiple passes over
an archive file.

Anyhow, that's where tsort came from.  To solve an old problem with
the way the linker handled archive files, which has since been solved
in different ways.

@node ptx invocation
@section @command{ptx}: Produce permuted indexes

@pindex ptx

@command{ptx} reads a text file and essentially produces a permuted index, with
each keyword in its context.  The calling sketch is either one of:

@example
ptx [@var{option} @dots{}] [@var{file} @dots{}]
ptx -G [@var{option} @dots{}] [@var{input} [@var{output}]]
@end example

The @option{-G} (or its equivalent: @option{--traditional}) option disables
all @sc{gnu} extensions and reverts to traditional mode, thus introducing some
limitations and changing several of the program's default option values.
When @option{-G} is not specified, @sc{gnu} extensions are always enabled.
@sc{gnu} extensions to @command{ptx} are documented wherever appropriate in this
document.  For the full list, see @xref{Compatibility in ptx}.

Individual options are explained in the following sections.

When @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, there may be zero, one or several
@var{file}s after the options.  If there is no @var{file}, the program
reads the standard input.  If there is one or several @var{file}s, they
give the name of input files which are all read in turn, as if all the
input files were concatenated.  However, there is a full contextual
break between each file and, when automatic referencing is requested,
file names and line numbers refer to individual text input files.  In
all cases, the program outputs the permuted index to the standard
output.

When @sc{gnu} extensions are @emph{not} enabled, that is, when the program
operates in traditional mode, there may be zero, one or two parameters
besides the options.  If there are no parameters, the program reads the
standard input and outputs the permuted index to the standard output.
If there is only one parameter, it names the text @var{input} to be read
instead of the standard input.  If two parameters are given, they give
respectively the name of the @var{input} file to read and the name of
the @var{output} file to produce.  @emph{Be very careful} to note that,
in this case, the contents of file given by the second parameter is
destroyed.  This behavior is dictated by System V @command{ptx}
compatibility; @sc{gnu} Standards normally discourage output parameters not
introduced by an option.

Note that for @emph{any} file named as the value of an option or as an
input text file, a single dash @kbd{-} may be used, in which case
standard input is assumed.  However, it would not make sense to use this
convention more than once per program invocation.

@menu
* General options in ptx::      Options which affect general program behavior.
* Charset selection in ptx::    Underlying character set considerations.
* Input processing in ptx::     Input fields, contexts, and keyword selection.
* Output formatting in ptx::    Types of output format, and sizing the fields.
* Compatibility in ptx::
@end menu


@node General options in ptx
@subsection General options

@table @samp

@item -C
@itemx --copyright
Print a short note about the copyright and copying conditions, then
exit without further processing.

@item -G
@itemx --traditional
As already explained, this option disables all @sc{gnu} extensions to
@command{ptx} and switches to traditional mode.

@item --help
Print a short help on standard output, then exit without further
processing.

@item --version
Print the program version on standard output, then exit without further
processing.

@end table


@node Charset selection in ptx
@subsection Charset selection

@c FIXME:  People don't necessarily know what an IBM-PC was these days.
As it is set up now, the program assumes that the input file is coded
using 8-bit ISO 8859-1 code, also known as Latin-1 character set,
@emph{unless} it is compiled for MS-DOS, in which case it uses the
character set of the IBM-PC.  (@sc{gnu} @command{ptx} is not known to work on
smaller MS-DOS machines anymore.)  Compared to 7-bit @acronym{ASCII}, the set
of characters which are letters is different; this alters the behavior
of regular expression matching.  Thus, the default regular expression
for a keyword allows foreign or diacriticized letters.  Keyword sorting,
however, is still crude; it obeys the underlying character set ordering
quite blindly.

@table @samp

@item -f
@itemx --ignore-case
Fold lower case letters to upper case for sorting.

@end table


@node Input processing in ptx
@subsection Word selection and input processing

@table @samp

@item -b @var{file}
@item --break-file=@var{file}

This option provides an alternative (to @option{-W}) method of describing
which characters make up words.  It introduces the name of a
file which contains a list of characters which can@emph{not} be part of
one word; this file is called the @dfn{Break file}.  Any character which
is not part of the Break file is a word constituent.  If both options
@option{-b} and @option{-W} are specified, then @option{-W} has precedence and
@option{-b} is ignored.

When @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, the only way to avoid newline as a
break character is to write all the break characters in the file with no
newline at all, not even at the end of the file.  When @sc{gnu} extensions
are disabled, spaces, tabs and newlines are always considered as break
characters even if not included in the Break file.

@item -i @var{file}
@itemx --ignore-file=@var{file}

The file associated with this option contains a list of words which will
never be taken as keywords in concordance output.  It is called the
@dfn{Ignore file}.  The file contains exactly one word in each line; the
end of line separation of words is not subject to the value of the
@option{-S} option.

There is a default Ignore file used by @command{ptx} when this option is
not specified, usually found in @file{/usr/local/lib/eign} if this has
not been changed at installation time.  If you want to deactivate the
default Ignore file, specify @code{/dev/null} instead.

@item -o @var{file}
@itemx --only-file=@var{file}

The file associated with this option contains a list of words which will
be retained in concordance output; any word not mentioned in this file
is ignored.  The file is called the @dfn{Only file}.  The file contains
exactly one word in each line; the end of line separation of words is
not subject to the value of the @option{-S} option.

There is no default for the Only file.  When both an Only file and an
Ignore file are specified, a word is considered a keyword only
if it is listed in the Only file and not in the Ignore file.

@item -r
@itemx --references

On each input line, the leading sequence of non-white space characters will be
taken to be a reference that has the purpose of identifying this input
line in the resulting permuted index.  For more information about reference
production, see @xref{Output formatting in ptx}.
Using this option changes the default value for option @option{-S}.

Using this option, the program does not try very hard to remove
references from contexts in output, but it succeeds in doing so
@emph{when} the context ends exactly at the newline.  If option
@option{-r} is used with @option{-S} default value, or when @sc{gnu} extensions
are disabled, this condition is always met and references are completely
excluded from the output contexts.

@item -S @var{regexp}
@itemx --sentence-regexp=@var{regexp}

This option selects which regular expression will describe the end of a
line or the end of a sentence.  In fact, this regular expression is not
the only distinction between end of lines or end of sentences, and input
line boundaries have no special significance outside this option.  By
default, when @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled and if @option{-r} option is not
used, end of sentences are used.  In this case, this @var{regex} is
imported from @sc{gnu} Emacs:

@example
[.?!][]\"')@}]*\\($\\|\t\\|  \\)[ \t\n]*
@end example

Whenever @sc{gnu} extensions are disabled or if @option{-r} option is used, end
of lines are used; in this case, the default @var{regexp} is just:

@example
\n
@end example

Using an empty @var{regexp} is equivalent to completely disabling end of
line or end of sentence recognition.  In this case, the whole file is
considered to be a single big line or sentence.  The user might want to
disallow all truncation flag generation as well, through option @option{-F
""}.  @xref{Regexps, , Syntax of Regular Expressions, emacs, The GNU Emacs
Manual}.

When the keywords happen to be near the beginning of the input line or
sentence, this often creates an unused area at the beginning of the
output context line; when the keywords happen to be near the end of the
input line or sentence, this often creates an unused area at the end of
the output context line.  The program tries to fill those unused areas
by wrapping around context in them; the tail of the input line or
sentence is used to fill the unused area on the left of the output line;
the head of the input line or sentence is used to fill the unused area
on the right of the output line.

As a matter of convenience to the user, many usual backslashed escape
sequences from the C language are recognized and converted to the
corresponding characters by @command{ptx} itself.

@item -W @var{regexp}
@itemx --word-regexp=@var{regexp}

This option selects which regular expression will describe each keyword.
By default, if @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, a word is a sequence of
letters; the @var{regexp} used is @samp{\w+}.  When @sc{gnu} extensions are
disabled, a word is by default anything which ends with a space, a tab
or a newline; the @var{regexp} used is @samp{[^ \t\n]+}.

An empty @var{regexp} is equivalent to not using this option.
@xref{Regexps, , Syntax of Regular Expressions, emacs, The GNU Emacs
Manual}.

As a matter of convenience to the user, many usual backslashed escape
sequences, as found in the C language, are recognized and converted to
the corresponding characters by @command{ptx} itself.

@end table


@node Output formatting in ptx
@subsection Output formatting

Output format is mainly controlled by the @option{-O} and @option{-T} options
described in the table below.  When neither @option{-O} nor @option{-T} are
selected, and if @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, the program chooses an
output format suitable for a dumb terminal.  Each keyword occurrence is
output to the center of one line, surrounded by its left and right
contexts.  Each field is properly justified, so the concordance output
can be readily observed.  As a special feature, if automatic
references are selected by option @option{-A} and are output before the
left context, that is, if option @option{-R} is @emph{not} selected, then
a colon is added after the reference; this nicely interfaces with @sc{gnu}
Emacs @code{next-error} processing.  In this default output format, each
white space character, like newline and tab, is merely changed to
exactly one space, with no special attempt to compress consecutive
spaces.  This might change in the future.  Except for those white space
characters, every other character of the underlying set of 256
characters is transmitted verbatim.

Output format is further controlled by the following options.

@table @samp

@item -g @var{number}
@itemx --gap-size=@var{number}

Select the size of the minimum white space gap between the fields on the
output line.

@item -w @var{number}
@itemx --width=@var{number}

Select the maximum output width of each final line.  If references are
used, they are included or excluded from the maximum output width
depending on the value of option @option{-R}.  If this option is not
selected, that is, when references are output before the left context,
the maximum output width takes into account the maximum length of all
references.  If this option is selected, that is, when references are
output after the right context, the maximum output width does not take
into account the space taken by references, nor the gap that precedes
them.

@item -A
@itemx --auto-reference

Select automatic references.  Each input line will have an automatic
reference made up of the file name and the line ordinal, with a single
colon between them.  However, the file name will be empty when standard
input is being read.  If both @option{-A} and @option{-r} are selected, then
the input reference is still read and skipped, but the automatic
reference is used at output time, overriding the input reference.

@item -R
@itemx --right-side-refs

In the default output format, when option @option{-R} is not used, any
references produced by the effect of options @option{-r} or @option{-A} are
placed to the far right of output lines, after the right context.  With
default output format, when the @option{-R} option is specified, references
are rather placed at the beginning of each output line, before the left
context.  For any other output format, option @option{-R} is
ignored, with one exception:  with @option{-R} the width of references
is @emph{not} taken into account in total output width given by @option{-w}.

This option is automatically selected whenever @sc{gnu} extensions are
disabled.

@item -F @var{string}
@itemx --flac-truncation=@var{string}

This option will request that any truncation in the output be reported
using the string @var{string}.  Most output fields theoretically extend
towards the beginning or the end of the current line, or current
sentence, as selected with option @option{-S}.  But there is a maximum
allowed output line width, changeable through option @option{-w}, which is
further divided into space for various output fields.  When a field has
to be truncated because it cannot extend beyond the beginning or the end of
the current line to fit in, then a truncation occurs.  By default,
the string used is a single slash, as in @option{-F /}.

@var{string} may have more than one character, as in @option{-F ...}.
Also, in the particular case when @var{string} is empty (@option{-F ""}),
truncation flagging is disabled, and no truncation marks are appended in
this case.

As a matter of convenience to the user, many usual backslashed escape
sequences, as found in the C language, are recognized and converted to
the corresponding characters by @command{ptx} itself.

@item -M @var{string}
@itemx --macro-name=@var{string}

Select another @var{string} to be used instead of @samp{xx}, while
generating output suitable for @code{nroff}, @code{troff} or @TeX{}.

@item -O
@itemx --format=roff

Choose an output format suitable for @code{nroff} or @code{troff}
processing.  Each output line will look like:

@smallexample
.xx "@var{tail}" "@var{before}" "@var{keyword_and_after}" "@var{head}" "@var{ref}"
@end smallexample

so it will be possible to write a @samp{.xx} roff macro to take care of
the output typesetting.  This is the default output format when @sc{gnu}
extensions are disabled.  Option @option{-M} can be used to change
@samp{xx} to another macro name.

In this output format, each non-graphical character, like newline and
tab, is merely changed to exactly one space, with no special attempt to
compress consecutive spaces.  Each quote character: @kbd{"} is doubled
so it will be correctly processed by @code{nroff} or @code{troff}.

@item -T
@itemx --format=tex

Choose an output format suitable for @TeX{} processing.  Each output
line will look like:

@smallexample
\xx @{@var{tail}@}@{@var{before}@}@{@var{keyword}@}@{@var{after}@}@{@var{head}@}@{@var{ref}@}
@end smallexample

@noindent
so it will be possible to write a @code{\xx} definition to take care of
the output typesetting.  Note that when references are not being
produced, that is, neither option @option{-A} nor option @option{-r} is
selected, the last parameter of each @code{\xx} call is inhibited.
Option @option{-M} can be used to change @samp{xx} to another macro
name.

In this output format, some special characters, like @kbd{$}, @kbd{%},
@kbd{&}, @kbd{#} and @kbd{_} are automatically protected with a
backslash.  Curly brackets @kbd{@{}, @kbd{@}} are protected with a
backslash and a pair of dollar signs (to force mathematical mode).  The
backslash itself produces the sequence @code{\backslash@{@}}.
Circumflex and tilde diacritical marks produce the sequence @code{^\@{ @}} and
@code{~\@{ @}} respectively.  Other diacriticized characters of the
underlying character set produce an appropriate @TeX{} sequence as far
as possible.  The other non-graphical characters, like newline and tab,
and all other characters which are not part of @acronym{ASCII}, are merely
changed to exactly one space, with no special attempt to compress
consecutive spaces.  Let me know how to improve this special character
processing for @TeX{}.

@end table


@node Compatibility in ptx
@subsection The @sc{gnu} extensions to @command{ptx}

This version of @command{ptx} contains a few features which do not exist in
System V @command{ptx}.  These extra features are suppressed by using the
@option{-G} command line option, unless overridden by other command line
options.  Some @sc{gnu} extensions cannot be recovered by overriding, so the
simple rule is to avoid @option{-G} if you care about @sc{gnu} extensions.
Here are the differences between this program and System V @command{ptx}.

@itemize @bullet

@item
This program can read many input files at once, it always writes the
resulting concordance on standard output.  On the other hand, System V
@command{ptx} reads only one file and sends the result to standard output
or, if a second @var{file} parameter is given on the command, to that
@var{file}.

Having output parameters not introduced by options is a dangerous
practice which @sc{gnu} avoids as far as possible.  So, for using @command{ptx}
portably between @sc{gnu} and System V, you should always use it with a
single input file, and always expect the result on standard output.  You
might also want to automatically configure in a @option{-G} option to
@command{ptx} calls in products using @code{ptx}, if the configurator finds
that the installed @command{ptx} accepts @option{-G}.

@item
The only options available in System V @command{ptx} are options @option{-b},
@option{-f}, @option{-g}, @option{-i}, @option{-o}, @option{-r}, @option{-t} and
@option{-w}.  All other options are @sc{gnu} extensions and are not repeated in
this enumeration.  Moreover, some options have a slightly different
meaning when @sc{gnu} extensions are enabled, as explained below.

@item
By default, concordance output is not formatted for @code{troff} or
@code{nroff}.  It is rather formatted for a dumb terminal.  @code{troff}
or @code{nroff} output may still be selected through option @option{-O}.

@item
Unless @option{-R} option is used, the maximum reference width is
subtracted from the total output line width.  With @sc{gnu} extensions
disabled, width of references is not taken into account in the output
line width computations.

@item
All 256 characters, even @kbd{NUL}s, are always read and processed from
input file with no adverse effect, even if @sc{gnu} extensions are disabled.
However, System V @command{ptx} does not accept 8-bit characters, a few
control characters are rejected, and the tilde @kbd{~} is also rejected.

@item
Input line length is only limited by available memory, even if @sc{gnu}
extensions are disabled.  However, System V @command{ptx} processes only
the first 200 characters in each line.

@item
The break (non-word) characters default to be every character except all
letters of the underlying character set, diacriticized or not.  When @sc{gnu}
extensions are disabled, the break characters default to space, tab and
newline only.

@item
The program makes better use of output line width.  If @sc{gnu} extensions
are disabled, the program rather tries to imitate System V @command{ptx},
but still, there are some slight disposition glitches this program does
not completely reproduce.

@item
The user can specify both an Ignore file and an Only file.  This is not
allowed with System V @command{ptx}.

@end itemize


@node Operating on fields within a line
@chapter Operating on fields within a line

@menu
* cut invocation::              Print selected parts of lines.
* paste invocation::            Merge lines of files.
* join invocation::             Join lines on a common field.
@end menu


@node cut invocation
@section @command{cut}: Print selected parts of lines

@pindex cut
@command{cut} writes to standard output selected parts of each line of each
input file, or standard input if no files are given or for a file name of
@samp{-}.  Synopsis:

@example
cut [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

In the table which follows, the @var{byte-list}, @var{character-list},
and @var{field-list} are one or more numbers or ranges (two numbers
separated by a dash) separated by commas.  Bytes, characters, and
fields are numbered starting at 1.  Incomplete ranges may be
given: @option{-@var{m}} means @samp{1-@var{m}}; @samp{@var{n}-} means
@samp{@var{n}} through end of line or last field.  The list elements
can be repeated, can overlap, and can be specified in any order; but
the selected input is written in the same order that it is read, and
is written exactly once.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common
options}.

@table @samp

@item -b @var{byte-list}
@itemx --bytes=@var{byte-list}
@opindex -b
@opindex --bytes
Print only the bytes in positions listed in @var{byte-list}.  Tabs and
backspaces are treated like any other character; they take up 1 byte.
If an output delimiter is specified, (see the description of
@option{--output-delimiter}), then output that string between
ranges of selected bytes.

@item -c @var{character-list}
@itemx --characters=@var{character-list}
@opindex -c
@opindex --characters
Print only characters in positions listed in @var{character-list}.
The same as @option{-b} for now, but internationalization will change
that.  Tabs and backspaces are treated like any other character; they
take up 1 character.
If an output delimiter is specified, (see the description of
@option{--output-delimiter}), then output that string between
ranges of selected bytes.

@item -f @var{field-list}
@itemx --fields=@var{field-list}
@opindex -f
@opindex --fields
Print only the fields listed in @var{field-list}.  Fields are
separated by a TAB character by default.
Also print any line that contains no delimiter character, unless
the @option{--only-delimited} (@option{-s}) option is specified

@item -d @var{input_delim_byte}
@itemx --delimiter=@var{input_delim_byte}
@opindex -d
@opindex --delimiter
For @option{-f}, fields are separated in the input by the first character
in @var{input_delim_byte} (default is TAB).

@item -n
@opindex -n
Do not split multi-byte characters (no-op for now).

@item -s
@itemx --only-delimited
@opindex -s
@opindex --only-delimited
For @option{-f}, do not print lines that do not contain the field separator
character.  Normally, any line without a field separator is printed verbatim.

@itemx --output-delimiter=@var{output_delim_string}
@opindex --output-delimiter
With @option{-f}, output fields are separated by @var{output_delim_string}.
The default with @option{-f} is to use the input delimiter.
When using @option{-b} or @option{-c} to select ranges of byte or
character offsets (as opposed to ranges of fields),
output @var{output_delim_string} between ranges of selected bytes.


@end table


@node paste invocation
@section @command{paste}: Merge lines of files

@pindex paste
@cindex merging files

@command{paste} writes to standard output lines consisting of sequentially
corresponding lines of each given file, separated by a TAB character.
Standard input is used for a file name of @samp{-} or if no input files
are given.

For example:

@example
$ cat num2
1
2
$ cat let3
a
b
c
$ paste num2 let3
1       a
2       b
        c
@end example

Synopsis:

@example
paste [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -s
@itemx --serial
@opindex -s
@opindex --serial
Paste the lines of one file at a time rather than one line from each
file.  Using the above example data:

@example
$ paste -s num2 let3
1       2
a       b       c
@end example

@item -d @var{delim-list}
@itemx --delimiters=@var{delim-list}
@opindex -d
@opindex --delimiters
Consecutively use the characters in @var{delim-list} instead of
TAB to separate merged lines.  When @var{delim-list} is
exhausted, start again at its beginning.  Using the above example data:

@example
$ paste -d '%_' num2 let3 num2
1%a_1
2%b_2
%c_
@end example

@end table


@node join invocation
@section @command{join}: Join lines on a common field

@pindex join
@cindex common field, joining on

@command{join} writes to standard output a line for each pair of input
lines that have identical join fields.  Synopsis:

@example
join [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file1} @var{file2}
@end example

@vindex LC_COLLATE
Either @var{file1} or @var{file2} (but not both) can be @samp{-},
meaning standard input.  @var{file1} and @var{file2} should be
sorted on the join fields.

Normally, the sort order is that of the
collating sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.  Unless
the @option{-t} option is given, the sort comparison ignores blanks at
the start of the join field, as in @code{sort -b}.  If the
@option{--ignore-case} option is given, the sort comparison ignores
the case of characters in the join field, as in @code{sort -f}.

However, as a GNU extension, if the input has no unpairable lines the
sort order can be any order that considers two fields to be equal if and
only if the sort comparison described above considers them to be equal.
For example:

@example
$ cat file1
a a1
c c1
b b1
$ cat file2
a a2
c c2
b b2
$ join file1 file2
a a1 a2
c c1 c2
b b1 b2
@end example

The defaults are: the join field is the first field in each line;
fields in the input are separated by one or more blanks, with leading
blanks on the line ignored; fields in the output are separated by a
space; each output line consists of the join field, the remaining
fields from @var{file1}, then the remaining fields from @var{file2}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a @var{file-number}
@opindex -a
Print a line for each unpairable line in file @var{file-number} (either
@samp{1} or @samp{2}), in addition to the normal output.

@item -e @var{string}
@opindex -e
Replace those output fields that are missing in the input with
@var{string}.

@item -i
@itemx --ignore-case
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-case
Ignore differences in case when comparing keys.
With this option, the lines of the input files must be ordered in the same way.
Use @samp{sort -f} to produce this ordering.

@item -1 @var{field}
@itemx -j1 @var{field}
@opindex -1
@opindex -j1
Join on field @var{field} (a positive integer) of file 1.

@item -2 @var{field}
@itemx -j2 @var{field}
@opindex -2
@opindex -j2
Join on field @var{field} (a positive integer) of file 2.

@item -j @var{field}
Equivalent to @option{-1 @var{field} -2 @var{field}}.

@item -o @var{field-list}@dots{}
Construct each output line according to the format in @var{field-list}.
Each element in @var{field-list} is either the single character @samp{0} or
has the form @var{m.n} where the file number, @var{m}, is @samp{1} or
@samp{2} and @var{n} is a positive field number.

A field specification of @samp{0} denotes the join field.
In most cases, the functionality of the @samp{0} field spec
may be reproduced using the explicit @var{m.n} that corresponds
to the join field.  However, when printing unpairable lines
(using either of the @option{-a} or @option{-v} options), there is no way
to specify the join field using @var{m.n} in @var{field-list}
if there are unpairable lines in both files.
To give @command{join} that functionality, @acronym{POSIX} invented the @samp{0}
field specification notation.

The elements in @var{field-list}
are separated by commas or blanks.  Multiple @var{field-list}
arguments can be given after a single @option{-o} option; the values
of all lists given with @option{-o} are concatenated together.
All output lines -- including those printed because of any -a or -v
option -- are subject to the specified @var{field-list}.

@item -t @var{char}
Use character @var{char} as the input and output field separator.

@item -v @var{file-number}
Print a line for each unpairable line in file @var{file-number}
(either @samp{1} or @samp{2}), instead of the normal output.

@end table

In addition, when @sc{gnu} @command{join} is invoked with exactly one argument,
the @option{--help} and @option{--version} options are recognized.
@xref{Common options}.


@node Operating on characters
@chapter Operating on characters

@cindex operating on characters

This commands operate on individual characters.

@menu
* tr invocation::               Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters.
* expand invocation::           Convert tabs to spaces.
* unexpand invocation::         Convert spaces to tabs.
@end menu


@node tr invocation
@section @command{tr}: Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters

@pindex tr

Synopsis:

@example
tr [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{set1} [@var{set2}]
@end example

@command{tr} copies standard input to standard output, performing
one of the following operations:

@itemize @bullet
@item
translate, and optionally squeeze repeated characters in the result,
@item
squeeze repeated characters,
@item
delete characters,
@item
delete characters, then squeeze repeated characters from the result.
@end itemize

The @var{set1} and (if given) @var{set2} arguments define ordered
sets of characters, referred to below as @var{set1} and @var{set2}.  These
sets are the characters of the input that @command{tr} operates on.
The @option{--complement} (@option{-c}) option replaces @var{set1} with its
complement (all of the characters that are not in @var{set1}).

@menu
* Character sets::              Specifying sets of characters.
* Translating::                 Changing one characters to another.
* Squeezing::                   Squeezing repeats and deleting.
* Warnings in tr::              Warning messages.
@end menu


@node Character sets
@subsection Specifying sets of characters

@cindex specifying sets of characters

The format of the @var{set1} and @var{set2} arguments resembles
the format of regular expressions; however, they are not regular
expressions, only lists of characters.  Most characters simply
represent themselves in these strings, but the strings can contain
the shorthands listed below, for convenience.  Some of them can be
used only in @var{set1} or @var{set2}, as noted below.

@table @asis

@item Backslash escapes
@cindex backslash escapes

A backslash followed by a character not listed below causes an error
message.

@table @samp
@item \a
Control-G.
@item \b
Control-H.
@item \f
Control-L.
@item \n
Control-J.
@item \r
Control-M.
@item \t
Control-I.
@item \v
Control-K.
@item \@var{ooo}
The character with the value given by @var{ooo}, which is 1 to 3
octal digits,
@item \\
A backslash.
@end table

@item Ranges
@cindex ranges

The notation @samp{@var{m}-@var{n}} expands to all of the characters
from @var{m} through @var{n}, in ascending order.  @var{m} should
collate before @var{n}; if it doesn't, an error results.  As an example,
@samp{0-9} is the same as @samp{0123456789}.

@sc{gnu} @command{tr} does not support the System V syntax that uses square
brackets to enclose ranges.  Translations specified in that format
sometimes work as expected, since the brackets are often transliterated
to themselves.  However, they should be avoided because they sometimes
behave unexpectedly.  For example, @samp{tr -d '[0-9]'} deletes brackets
as well as digits.

Many historically common and even accepted uses of ranges are not
portable.  For example, on @acronym{EBCDIC} hosts using the @samp{A-Z}
range will not do what most would expect because @samp{A} through @samp{Z}
are not contiguous as they are in @acronym{ASCII}.
If you can rely on a @acronym{POSIX} compliant version of @command{tr}, then
the best way to work around this is to use character classes (see below).
Otherwise, it is most portable (and most ugly) to enumerate the members
of the ranges.

@item Repeated characters
@cindex repeated characters

The notation @samp{[@var{c}*@var{n}]} in @var{set2} expands to @var{n}
copies of character @var{c}.  Thus, @samp{[y*6]} is the same as
@samp{yyyyyy}.  The notation @samp{[@var{c}*]} in @var{string2} expands
to as many copies of @var{c} as are needed to make @var{set2} as long as
@var{set1}.  If @var{n} begins with @samp{0}, it is interpreted in
octal, otherwise in decimal.

@item Character classes
@cindex character classes

The notation @samp{[:@var{class}:]} expands to all of the characters in
the (predefined) class @var{class}.  The characters expand in no
particular order, except for the @code{upper} and @code{lower} classes,
which expand in ascending order.  When the @option{--delete} (@option{-d})
and @option{--squeeze-repeats} (@option{-s}) options are both given, any
character class can be used in @var{set2}.  Otherwise, only the
character classes @code{lower} and @code{upper} are accepted in
@var{set2}, and then only if the corresponding character class
(@code{upper} and @code{lower}, respectively) is specified in the same
relative position in @var{set1}.  Doing this specifies case conversion.
The class names are given below; an error results when an invalid class
name is given.

@table @code
@item alnum
@opindex alnum
Letters and digits.
@item alpha
@opindex alpha
Letters.
@item blank
@opindex blank
Horizontal whitespace.
@item cntrl
@opindex cntrl
Control characters.
@item digit
@opindex digit
Digits.
@item graph
@opindex graph
Printable characters, not including space.
@item lower
@opindex lower
Lowercase letters.
@item print
@opindex print
Printable characters, including space.
@item punct
@opindex punct
Punctuation characters.
@item space
@opindex space
Horizontal or vertical whitespace.
@item upper
@opindex upper
Uppercase letters.
@item xdigit
@opindex xdigit
Hexadecimal digits.
@end table

@item Equivalence classes
@cindex equivalence classes

The syntax @samp{[=@var{c}=]} expands to all of the characters that are
equivalent to @var{c}, in no particular order.  Equivalence classes are
a relatively recent invention intended to support non-English alphabets.
But there seems to be no standard way to define them or determine their
contents.  Therefore, they are not fully implemented in @sc{gnu} @command{tr};
each character's equivalence class consists only of that character,
which is of no particular use.

@end table


@node Translating
@subsection Translating

@cindex translating characters

@command{tr} performs translation when @var{set1} and @var{set2} are
both given and the @option{--delete} (@option{-d}) option is not given.
@command{tr} translates each character of its input that is in @var{set1}
to the corresponding character in @var{set2}.  Characters not in
@var{set1} are passed through unchanged.  When a character appears more
than once in @var{set1} and the corresponding characters in @var{set2}
are not all the same, only the final one is used.  For example, these
two commands are equivalent:

@example
tr aaa xyz
tr a z
@end example

A common use of @command{tr} is to convert lowercase characters to
uppercase.  This can be done in many ways.  Here are three of them:

@example
tr abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
tr a-z A-Z
tr '[:lower:]' '[:upper:]'
@end example

@noindent
But note that using ranges like @code{a-z} above is not portable.

When @command{tr} is performing translation, @var{set1} and @var{set2}
typically have the same length.  If @var{set1} is shorter than
@var{set2}, the extra characters at the end of @var{set2} are ignored.

On the other hand, making @var{set1} longer than @var{set2} is not
portable; @acronym{POSIX} says that the result is undefined.  In this situation,
BSD @command{tr} pads @var{set2} to the length of @var{set1} by repeating
the last character of @var{set2} as many times as necessary.  System V
@command{tr} truncates @var{set1} to the length of @var{set2}.

By default, @sc{gnu} @command{tr} handles this case like BSD @code{tr}.  When
the @option{--truncate-set1} (@option{-t}) option is given, @sc{gnu} @command{tr}
handles this case like the System V @command{tr} instead.  This option is
ignored for operations other than translation.

Acting like System V @command{tr} in this case breaks the relatively common
BSD idiom:

@example
tr -cs A-Za-z0-9 '\012'
@end example

@noindent
because it converts only zero bytes (the first element in the
complement of @var{set1}), rather than all non-alphanumerics, to
newlines.

@noindent
By the way, the above idiom is not portable because it uses ranges.
Assuming a @acronym{POSIX} compliant @command{tr}, here is a better way to write it:

@example
tr -cs '[:alnum:]' '[\n*]'
@end example


@node Squeezing
@subsection Squeezing repeats and deleting

@cindex squeezing repeat characters
@cindex deleting characters

When given just the @option{--delete} (@option{-d}) option, @command{tr}
removes any input characters that are in @var{set1}.

When given just the @option{--squeeze-repeats} (@option{-s}) option,
@command{tr} replaces each input sequence of a repeated character that
is in @var{set1} with a single occurrence of that character.

When given both @option{--delete} and @option{--squeeze-repeats}, @command{tr}
first performs any deletions using @var{set1}, then squeezes repeats
from any remaining characters using @var{set2}.

The @option{--squeeze-repeats} option may also be used when translating,
in which case @command{tr} first performs translation, then squeezes
repeats from any remaining characters using @var{set2}.

Here are some examples to illustrate various combinations of options:

@itemize @bullet

@item
Remove all zero bytes:

@example
tr -d '\000'
@end example

@item
Put all words on lines by themselves.  This converts all
non-alphanumeric characters to newlines, then squeezes each string
of repeated newlines into a single newline:

@example
tr -cs '[:alnum:]' '[\n*]'
@end example

@item
Convert each sequence of repeated newlines to a single newline:

@example
tr -s '\n'
@end example

@item
Find doubled occurrences of words in a document.
For example, people often write ``the the'' with the duplicated words
separated by a newline.  The bourne shell script below works first
by converting each sequence of punctuation and blank characters to a
single newline.  That puts each ``word'' on a line by itself.
Next it maps all uppercase characters to lower case, and finally it
runs @command{uniq} with the @option{-d} option to print out only the words
that were adjacent duplicates.

@example
#!/bin/sh
cat "$@@" \
  | tr -s '[:punct:][:blank:]' '\n' \
  | tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' \
  | uniq -d
@end example

@item
Deleting a small set of characters is usually straightforward.  For example,
to remove all @samp{a}s, @samp{x}s, and @samp{M}s you would do this:

@example
tr -d axM
@end example

However, when @samp{-} is one of those characters, it can be tricky because
@samp{-} has special meanings.  Performing the same task as above but also
removing all @samp{-} characters, we might try @code{tr -d -axM}, but
that would fail because @command{tr} would try to interpret @option{-a} as
a command-line option.  Alternatively, we could try putting the hyphen
inside the string, @code{tr -d a-xM}, but that wouldn't work either because
it would make @command{tr} interpret @code{a-x} as the range of characters
@samp{a}@dots{}@samp{x} rather than the three.
One way to solve the problem is to put the hyphen at the end of the list
of characters:

@example
tr -d axM-
@end example

More generally, use the character class notation @code{[=c=]}
with @samp{-} (or any other character) in place of the @samp{c}:

@example
tr -d '[=-=]axM'
@end example

Note how single quotes are used in the above example to protect the
square brackets from interpretation by a shell.

@end itemize


@node Warnings in tr
@subsection Warning messages

@vindex POSIXLY_CORRECT
Setting the environment variable @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} turns off the
following warning and error messages, for strict compliance with
@acronym{POSIX}.  Otherwise, the following diagnostics are issued:

@enumerate

@item
When the @option{--delete} option is given but @option{--squeeze-repeats}
is not, and @var{set2} is given, @sc{gnu} @command{tr} by default prints
a usage message and exits, because @var{set2} would not be used.
The @acronym{POSIX} specification says that @var{set2} must be ignored in
this case. Silently ignoring arguments is a bad idea.

@item
When an ambiguous octal escape is given.  For example, @samp{\400}
is actually @samp{\40} followed by the digit @samp{0}, because the
value 400 octal does not fit into a single byte.

@end enumerate

@sc{gnu} @command{tr} does not provide complete BSD or System V compatibility.
For example, it is impossible to disable interpretation of the @acronym{POSIX}
constructs @samp{[:alpha:]}, @samp{[=c=]}, and @samp{[c*10]}.  Also, @sc{gnu}
@command{tr} does not delete zero bytes automatically, unlike traditional
Unix versions, which provide no way to preserve zero bytes.


@node expand invocation
@section @command{expand}: Convert tabs to spaces

@pindex expand
@cindex tabs to spaces, converting
@cindex converting tabs to spaces

@command{expand} writes the contents of each given @var{file}, or standard
input if none are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}, to standard
output, with tab characters converted to the appropriate number of
spaces.  Synopsis:

@example
expand [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

By default, @command{expand} converts all tabs to spaces.  It preserves
backspace characters in the output; they decrement the column count for
tab calculations.  The default action is equivalent to @option{-t 8} (set
tabs every 8 columns).

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -t @var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
@itemx --tabs=@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
@opindex -t
@opindex --tabs
@cindex tabstops, setting
If only one tab stop is given, set the tabs @var{tab1} spaces apart
(default is 8).  Otherwise, set the tabs at columns @var{tab1},
@var{tab2}, @dots{} (numbered from 0), and replace any tabs beyond the
last tabstop given with single spaces.  Tabstops can be separated by
blanks as well as by commas.

On older systems, @command{expand} supports an obsolete option
@option{-@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}}, where tabstops must be
separated by commas.  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards
conformance}) does not allow this; use @option{-t
@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}} instead.

@item -i
@itemx --initial
@opindex -i
@opindex --initial
@cindex initial tabs, converting
Only convert initial tabs (those that precede all non-space or non-tab
characters) on each line to spaces.

@end table


@node unexpand invocation
@section @command{unexpand}: Convert spaces to tabs

@pindex unexpand

@command{unexpand} writes the contents of each given @var{file}, or
standard input if none are given or for a @var{file} of @samp{-}, to
standard output, with strings of two or more space or tab characters
converted to as many tabs as possible followed by as many spaces as are
needed.  Synopsis:

@example
unexpand [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

By default, @command{unexpand} converts only initial spaces and tabs (those
that precede all non space or tab characters) on each line.  It
preserves backspace characters in the output; they decrement the column
count for tab calculations.  By default, tabs are set at every 8th
column.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -t @var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
@itemx --tabs=@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}
@opindex -t
@opindex --tabs
If only one tab stop is given, set the tabs @var{tab1} spaces apart
instead of the default 8.  Otherwise, set the tabs at columns
@var{tab1}, @var{tab2}, @dots{} (numbered from 0), and leave spaces and
tabs beyond the tabstops given unchanged.  Tabstops can be separated by
blanks as well as by commas.  This option implies the @option{-a} option.

On older systems, @command{unexpand} supports an obsolete option
@option{-@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}}, where tabstops must be
separated by commas.  (Unlike @option{-t}, this obsolete option does
not imply @option{-a}.)  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards
conformance}) does not allow this; use @option{--first-only -t
@var{tab1}[,@var{tab2}]@dots{}} instead.

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
Convert all strings of two or more spaces or tabs, not just initial
ones, to tabs.

@end table


@node Directory listing
@chapter Directory listing

This chapter describes the @command{ls} command and its variants @code{dir}
and @command{vdir}, which list information about files.

@menu
* ls invocation::               List directory contents.
* dir invocation::              Briefly ls.
* vdir invocation::             Verbosely ls.
* dircolors invocation::        Color setup for ls, etc.
@end menu


@node ls invocation
@section @command{ls}: List directory contents

@pindex ls
@cindex directory listing

The @command{ls} program lists information about files (of any type,
including directories).  Options and file arguments can be intermixed
arbitrarily, as usual.

For non-option command-line arguments that are directories, by default
@command{ls} lists the contents of directories, not recursively, and
omitting files with names beginning with @samp{.}.  For other non-option
arguments, by default @command{ls} lists just the file name.  If no
non-option argument is specified, @command{ls} operates on the current
directory, acting as if it had been invoked with a single argument of @samp{.}.

@vindex LC_ALL
By default, the output is sorted alphabetically, according to the locale
settings in effect. @footnote{If you use a non-@acronym{POSIX}
locale (e.g., by setting @env{LC_ALL} to @samp{en_US}), then @command{ls} may
produce output that is sorted differently than you're accustomed to.
In that case, set the @env{LC_ALL} environment variable to @samp{C}.}
If standard output is
a terminal, the output is in columns (sorted vertically) and control
characters are output as question marks; otherwise, the output is listed
one per line and control characters are output as-is.

Because @command{ls} is such a fundamental program, it has accumulated many
options over the years.  They are described in the subsections below;
within each section, options are listed alphabetically (ignoring case).
The division of options into the subsections is not absolute, since some
options affect more than one aspect of @command{ls}'s operation.

Also see @ref{Common options}.

@menu
* Which files are listed::
* What information is listed::
* Sorting the output::
* More details about version sort::
* General output formatting::
* Formatting file timestamps::
* Formatting the file names::
@end menu


@node Which files are listed
@subsection Which files are listed

These options determine which files @command{ls} lists information for.
By default, any files and the contents of any directories on the command
line are shown.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
List all files in directories, including files that start with @samp{.}.

@item -A
@itemx --almost-all
@opindex -A
@opindex --almost-all
List all files in directories except for @file{.} and @file{..}.

@item -B
@itemx --ignore-backups
@opindex -B
@opindex --ignore-backups
@cindex backup files, ignoring
Do not list files that end with @samp{~}, unless they are given on the
command line.

@item -d
@itemx --directory
@opindex -d
@opindex --directory
List just the names of directories, as with other types of files, rather
than listing their contents.
@c The following sentence is the same as the one for -F.
Do not follow symbolic links listed on the
command line unless the @option{--dereference-command-line} (@option{-H}),
@option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), or
@option{--dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir} options are specified.

@item -H
@itemx --dereference-command-line
@opindex -H
@opindex --dereference-command-line
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing
If a command line argument specifies a symbolic link, show information
for the file the link references rather than for the link itself.

@itemx --dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir
@opindex --dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing
Do not dereference symbolic links, with one exception:
if a command line argument specifies a symbolic link that refers to
a directory, show information for that directory rather than for the
link itself.
This is the default behavior when no other dereferencing-related
option has been specified (@option{--classify} (@option{-F}),
@option{--directory} (@option{-d}),
(@option{-l}),
@option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), or
@option{--dereference-command-line} (@option{-H})).

@item -I PATTERN
@itemx --ignore=PATTERN
@opindex -I
@opindex --ignore=@var{pattern}
Do not list files whose names match the shell pattern (not regular
expression) @var{pattern} unless they are given on the command line.  As
in the shell, an initial @samp{.} in a file name does not match a
wildcard at the start of @var{pattern}.  Sometimes it is useful
to give this option several times.  For example,

@smallexample
$ ls --ignore='.??*' --ignore='.[^.]' --ignore='#*'
@end smallexample

The first option ignores names of length 3 or more that start with @samp{.},
the second ignores all two-character names that start with @samp{.}
except @samp{..}, and the third ignores names that start with @samp{#}.

@item -L
@itemx --dereference
@opindex -L
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing
When showing file information for a symbolic link, show information
for the file the link references rather than the link itself.

@item -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex recursive directory listing
@cindex directory listing, recursive
List the contents of all directories recursively.

@end table


@node What information is listed
@subsection What information is listed

These options affect the information that @command{ls} displays.  By
default, only file names are shown.

@table @samp

@item --author
@opindex --author
@cindex hurd, author, printing
List each file's author when producing long format directory listings.
In GNU/Hurd, file authors can differ from their owners, but in other
operating systems the two are the same.

@item -D
@itemx --dired
@opindex -D
@opindex --dired
@cindex dired Emacs mode support
With the long listing (@option{-l}) format, print an additional line after
the main output:

@example
//DIRED// @var{beg1} @var{end1} @var{beg2} @var{end2} @dots{}
@end example

@noindent
The @var{begN} and @var{endN} are unsigned integers that record the
byte position of the beginning and end of each file name in the output.
This makes it easy for Emacs to find the names, even when they contain
unusual characters such as space or newline, without fancy searching.

If directories are being listed recursively (@code{-R}), output a similar
line with offsets for each subdirectory name:
@example
//SUBDIRED// @var{beg1} @var{end1} @dots{}
@end example

Finally, output a line of the form:
@example
//DIRED-OPTIONS// --quoting-style=@var{word}
@end example
where @var{word} is the quoting style (@pxref{Formatting the file names}).

Here is an actual example:

@example
$ mkdir -p a/sub/deeper a/sub2
$ touch a/f1 a/f2
$ touch a/sub/deeper/file
$ ls -gloRF --dired a
  a:
  total 8
  -rw-r--r--    1        0 Nov  9 18:30 f1
  -rw-r--r--    1        0 Nov  9 18:30 f2
  drwxr-xr-x    3     4096 Nov  9 18:30 sub/
  drwxr-xr-x    2     4096 Nov  9 18:30 sub2/

  a/sub:
  total 4
  drwxr-xr-x    2     4096 Nov  9 18:30 deeper/

  a/sub/deeper:
  total 0
  -rw-r--r--    1        0 Nov  9 18:30 file

  a/sub2:
  total 0
//DIRED// 55 57 98 100 141 144 186 190 252 258 327 331
//SUBDIRED// 2 3 195 200 263 275 335 341
//DIRED-OPTIONS// --quoting-style=literal
@end example

Note that the pairs of offsets on the @samp{//DIRED//} line above delimit
these names: @file{f1}, @file{f2}, @file{sub}, @file{sub2}, @file{deeper},
@file{file}.
The offsets on the @samp{//SUBDIRED//} line delimit the following
directory names: @file{a}, @file{a/sub}, @file{a/sub/deeper}, @file{a/sub2}.

Here is an example of how to extract the fifth entry name, @samp{deeper},
corresponding to the pair of offsets, 252 and 258:

@example
$ ls -gloRF --dired a > out
$ dd bs=1 skip=252 count=6 < out 2>/dev/null; echo
deeper
@end example

Note that although the listing above includes a trailing slash
for the @samp{deeper} entry, the offsets select the name without
the trailing slash.  However, if you invoke @command{ls} with @option{--dired}
along with an option like @option{--escape} (aka @option{-b}) and operate
on a file whose name contains special characters, notice that the backslash
@emph{is} included:

@example
$ touch 'a b'
$ ls -blog --dired 'a b'
  -rw-r--r--    1        0 Nov  9 18:41 a\ b
//DIRED// 40 44
//DIRED-OPTIONS// --quoting-style=escape
@end example

If you use a quoting style that adds quote marks
(e.g., @option{--quoting-style=c}), then the offsets include the quote marks.
So beware that the user may select the quoting style via the environment
variable @env{QUOTING_STYLE}.  Hence, applications using @option{--dired}
should either specify an explicit @option{--quoting-style=literal} option
(aka @option{-N} or @option{--literal}) on the command line, or else be
prepared to parse the escaped names.

@item --full-time
@opindex --full-time
Produce long format directory listings, and list times in full.  It is
equivalent to using @option{--format=long} with
@option{--time-style=full-iso} (@pxref{Formatting file timestamps}).

@item -g
@opindex -g
Produce long format directory listings, but don't display owner information.

@item -G
@itemx --no-group
@opindex -G
@opindex --no-group
Inhibit display of group information in a long format directory listing.
(This is the default in some non-@sc{gnu} versions of @command{ls}, so we
provide this option for compatibility.)

@item -h
@itemx --human-readable
@opindex -h
@opindex --human-readable
@cindex human-readable output
Append a size letter to each size, such as @samp{M} for mebibytes.
Powers of 1024 are used, not 1000; @samp{M} stands for 1,048,576 bytes.
This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=human} (@pxref{Block size}).
Use the @option{--si} option if you prefer powers of 1000.

@item -i
@itemx --inode
@opindex -i
@opindex --inode
@cindex inode number, printing
Print the inode number (also called the file serial number and index
number) of each file to the left of the file name.  (This number
uniquely identifies each file within a particular filesystem.)

@item -l
@itemx --format=long
@itemx --format=verbose
@opindex -l
@opindex --format
@opindex long ls @r{format}
@opindex verbose ls @r{format}
In addition to the name of each file, print the file type, permissions,
number of hard links, owner name, group name, size, and
timestamp (@pxref{Formatting file timestamps}), normally
the modification time.

Normally the size is printed as a byte count without punctuation, but
this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).  For example, @option{-h}
prints an abbreviated, human-readable count, and
@samp{--block-size="'1"} prints a byte count with the thousands
separator of the current locale.

For each directory that is listed, preface the files with a line
@samp{total @var{blocks}}, where @var{blocks} is the total disk allocation
for all files in that directory.  The block size currently defaults to 1024
bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
The @var{blocks} computed counts each hard link separately;
this is arguably a deficiency.

@cindex permissions, output by @command{ls}
The permissions listed are similar to symbolic mode specifications
(@pxref{Symbolic Modes}).  But @command{ls} combines multiple bits into the
third character of each set of permissions as follows:
@table @samp
@item s
If the setuid or setgid bit and the corresponding executable bit
are both set.

@item S
If the setuid or setgid bit is set but the corresponding executable bit
is not set.

@item t
If the sticky bit and the other-executable bit are both set.

@item T
If the sticky bit is set but the other-executable bit is not set.

@item x
If the executable bit is set and none of the above apply.

@item -
Otherwise.
@end table

Following the permission bits is a single character that specifies
whether an alternate access method applies to the file.  When that
character is a space, there is no alternate access method.  When it
is a printing character (e.g., @samp{+}), then there is such a method.

@item -n
@itemx --numeric-uid-gid
@opindex -n
@opindex --numeric-uid-gid
@cindex numeric uid and gid
Produce long format directory listings, but
display numeric UIDs and GIDs instead of the owner and group names.

@item -o
@opindex -o
Produce long format directory listings, but don't display group information.
It is equivalent to using @option{--format=long} with @option{--no-group} .

@item -s
@itemx --size
@opindex -s
@opindex --size
@cindex disk allocation
@cindex size of files, reporting
Print the disk allocation of each file to the left of the file name.
This is the amount of disk space used by the file, which is usually a
bit more than the file's size, but it can be less if the file has holes.

Normally the disk allocation is printed in units of
1024 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).

@cindex NFS mounts from BSD to HP-UX
For files that are NFS-mounted from an HP-UX system to a BSD system,
this option reports sizes that are half the correct values.  On HP-UX
systems, it reports sizes that are twice the correct values for files
that are NFS-mounted from BSD systems.  This is due to a flaw in HP-UX;
it also affects the HP-UX @command{ls} program.

@itemx --si
@opindex --si
@cindex SI output
Append an SI-style abbreviation to each size, such as @samp{MB} for
megabytes.  Powers of 1000 are used, not 1024; @samp{MB} stands for
1,000,000 bytes.  This option is equivalent to
@option{--block-size=si}.  Use the @option{-h} or
@option{--human-readable} option if
you prefer powers of 1024.

@end table


@node Sorting the output
@subsection Sorting the output

@cindex sorting @command{ls} output
These options change the order in which @command{ls} sorts the information
it outputs.  By default, sorting is done by character code
(e.g., @acronym{ASCII} order).

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --time=ctime
@itemx --time=status
@itemx --time=use
@opindex -c
@opindex --time
@opindex ctime@r{, printing or sorting by}
@opindex status time@r{, printing or sorting by}
@opindex use time@r{, printing or sorting files by}
If the long listing format (e.g., @option{-l}, @option{-o}) is being used,
print the status change time (the @samp{ctime} in the inode) instead of
the modification time.
When explicitly sorting by time (@option{--sort=time} or @option{-t})
or when not using a long listing format,
sort according to the status change time.

@item -f
@opindex -f
@cindex unsorted directory listing
@cindex directory order, listing by
Primarily, like @option{-U}---do not sort; list the files in whatever
order they are stored in the directory.  But also enable @option{-a} (list
all files) and disable @option{-l}, @option{--color}, and @option{-s} (if they
were specified before the @option{-f}).

@item -r
@itemx --reverse
@opindex -r
@opindex --reverse
@cindex reverse sorting
Reverse whatever the sorting method is---e.g., list files in reverse
alphabetical order, youngest first, smallest first, or whatever.

@item -S
@itemx --sort=size
@opindex -S
@opindex --sort
@opindex size of files@r{, sorting files by}
Sort by file size, largest first.

@item -t
@itemx --sort=time
@opindex -t
@opindex --sort
@opindex modification time@r{, sorting files by}
Sort by modification time (the @samp{mtime} in the inode), newest first.

@item -u
@itemx --time=atime
@itemx --time=access
@opindex -u
@opindex --time
@opindex use time@r{, printing or sorting files by}
@opindex atime@r{, printing or sorting files by}
@opindex access time@r{, printing or sorting files by}
If the long listing format (e.g., @option{--format=long}) is being used,
print the last access time (the @samp{atime} in the inode).
When explicitly sorting by time (@option{--sort=time} or @option{-t})
or when not using a long listing format, sort according to the access time.

@item -U
@itemx --sort=none
@opindex -U
@opindex --sort
@opindex none@r{, sorting option for @command{ls}}
Do not sort; list the files in whatever order they are
stored in the directory.  (Do not do any of the other unrelated things
that @option{-f} does.)  This is especially useful when listing very large
directories, since not doing any sorting can be noticeably faster.

@item -v
@itemx --sort=version
@opindex -v
@opindex --sort
@opindex version@r{, sorting option for @command{ls}}
Sort by version name and number, lowest first.  It behaves like a default
sort, except that each sequence of decimal digits is treated numerically
as an index/version number.  (@xref{More details about version sort}.)

@item -X
@itemx --sort=extension
@opindex -X
@opindex --sort
@opindex extension@r{, sorting files by}
Sort directory contents alphabetically by file extension (characters
after the last @samp{.}); files with no extension are sorted first.

@end table


@node More details about version sort
@subsection More details about version sort

The version sort takes into account the fact that file names frequently include
indices or version numbers.  Standard sorting functions usually do not produce
the ordering that people expect because comparisons are made on a
character-by-character basis.  The version
sort addresses this problem, and is especially useful when browsing
directories that contain many files with indices/version numbers in their
names:

@example
      > ls -1            > ls -1v
      foo.zml-1.gz       foo.zml-1.gz
      foo.zml-100.gz     foo.zml-2.gz
      foo.zml-12.gz      foo.zml-6.gz
      foo.zml-13.gz      foo.zml-12.gz
      foo.zml-2.gz       foo.zml-13.gz
      foo.zml-25.gz      foo.zml-25.gz
      foo.zml-6.gz       foo.zml-100.gz
@end example

Note also that numeric parts with leading zeroes are considered as
fractional one:

@example
      > ls -1            > ls -1v
      abc-1.007.tgz      abc-1.007.tgz
      abc-1.012b.tgz     abc-1.01a.tgz
      abc-1.01a.tgz      abc-1.012b.tgz
@end example

@node General output formatting
@subsection General output formatting

These options affect the appearance of the overall output.

@table @samp

@item -1
@itemx --format=single-column
@opindex -1
@opindex --format
@opindex single-column @r{output of files}
List one file per line.  This is the default for @command{ls} when standard
output is not a terminal.

@item -C
@itemx --format=vertical
@opindex -C
@opindex --format
@opindex vertical @r{sorted files in columns}
List files in columns, sorted vertically.  This is the default for
@command{ls} if standard output is a terminal.  It is always the default
for the @command{dir} and @code{d} programs.
@sc{gnu} @command{ls} uses variable width columns to display as many files as
possible in the fewest lines.

@item --color [=@var{when}]
@opindex --color
@cindex color, distinguishing file types with
Specify whether to use color for distinguishing file types.  @var{when}
may be omitted, or one of:
@itemize @bullet
@item none
@vindex none @r{color option}
- Do not use color at all.  This is the default.
@item auto
@vindex auto @r{color option}
@cindex terminal, using color iff
- Only use color if standard output is a terminal.
@item always
@vindex always @r{color option}
- Always use color.
@end itemize
Specifying @option{--color} and no @var{when} is equivalent to
@option{--color=always}.
Piping a colorized listing through a pager like @code{more} or
@code{less} usually produces unreadable results.  However, using
@code{more -f} does seem to work.

@item -F
@itemx --classify
@itemx --indicator-style=classify
@opindex -F
@opindex --classify
@opindex --indicator-style
@cindex file type and executables, marking
@cindex executables and file type, marking
Append a character to each file name indicating the file type.  Also,
for regular files that are executable, append @samp{*}.  The file type
indicators are @samp{/} for directories, @samp{@@} for symbolic links,
@samp{|} for FIFOs, @samp{=} for sockets, and nothing for regular files.
@c The following sentence is the same as the one for -d.
Do not follow symbolic links listed on the
command line unless the @option{--dereference-command-line} (@option{-H}),
@option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), or
@option{--dereference-command-line-symlink-to-dir} options are specified.

@item --indicator-style=@var{word}
@opindex --indicator-style
Append a character indicator with style @var{word} to entry names,
as follows:
@table @samp
@item none
Do not append any character indicator; this is the default.
@item file-type
Append @samp{/} for directories, @samp{@@} for symbolic links, @samp{|}
for FIFOs, @samp{=} for sockets, and nothing for regular files.  This is
the same as the @option{-p} or @option{--file-type} option.
@item classify
Append @samp{*} for executable regular files, otherwise behave as for
@samp{file-type}.  This is the same as the @option{-F} or
@option{--classify} option.
@end table

@item -k
@opindex -k
Print file sizes in 1024-byte blocks, overriding the default block
size (@pxref{Block size}).
This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}.

@item -m
@itemx --format=commas
@opindex -m
@opindex --format
@opindex commas@r{, outputting between files}
List files horizontally, with as many as will fit on each line,
separated by @samp{, } (a comma and a space).

@item -p
@itemx --file-type
@itemx --indicator-style=file-type
@opindex --file-type
@opindex --indicator-style
@cindex file type, marking
Append a character to each file name indicating the file type. This is
like @option{-F}, except that executables are not marked.

@item -x @var{format}
@itemx --format=across
@itemx --format=horizontal
@opindex -x
@opindex --format
@opindex across@r{, listing files}
@opindex horizontal@r{, listing files}
List the files in columns, sorted horizontally.

@item -T @var{cols}
@itemx --tabsize=@var{cols}
@opindex -T
@opindex --tabsize
Assume that each tabstop is @var{cols} columns wide.  The default is 8.
@command{ls} uses tabs where possible in the output, for efficiency.  If
@var{cols} is zero, do not use tabs at all.

@item -w
@itemx --width=@var{cols}
@opindex -w
@opindex --width
@vindex COLUMNS
Assume the screen is @var{cols} columns wide.  The default is taken
from the terminal settings if possible; otherwise the environment
variable @env{COLUMNS} is used if it is set; otherwise the default
is 80.

@end table


@node Formatting file timestamps
@subsection Formatting file timestamps

By default, file timestamps are listed in abbreviated form.  Most
locales use a timestamp like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45}.  However, the
default @acronym{POSIX} locale uses a date like @samp{Mar 30@ @ 2002}
for non-recent timestamps, and a date-without-year and time like
@samp{Mar 30 23:45} for recent timestamps.

A timestamp is considered to be @dfn{recent} if it is less than six
months old, and is not dated in the future.  If a timestamp dated
today is not listed in recent form, the timestamp is in the future,
which means you probably have clock skew problems which may break
programs like @command{make} that rely on file timestamps.

The following option changes how file timestamps are printed.

@table @samp
@item --time-style=@var{style}
@opindex --time-style
@cindex time style
List timestamps in style @var{style}.  The @var{style} should
be one of the following:

@table @samp
@item +@var{format}
@vindex LC_TIME
List timestamps using @var{format}, where @var{format} is interpreted
like the format argument of @command{date} (@pxref{date invocation}).
For example, @option{--time-style="+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S"} causes
@command{ls} to list timestamps like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45:56}.  As
with @command{date}, @var{format}'s interpretation is affected by the
@env{LC_TIME} locale category.

If @var{format} contains two format strings separated by a newline,
the former is used for non-recent files and the latter for recent
files; if you want output columns to line up, you may need to insert
spaces in one of the two formats.

@item full-iso
List timestamps in full using @acronym{ISO} 8601 date, time, and time zone
format with nanosecond precision, e.g., @samp{2002-03-30
23:45:56.477817180 -0700}.  This style is equivalent to
@samp{+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%N %z}.

This is useful because the time output includes all the information that
is available from the operating system.  For example, this can help
explain @command{make}'s behavior, since @acronym{GNU} @command{make}
uses the full timestamp to determine whether a file is out of date.

@item long-iso
List @acronym{ISO} 8601 date and time in minutes, e.g.,
@samp{2002-03-30 23:45}.  These timestamps are shorter than
@samp{full-iso} timestamps, and are usually good enough for everyday
work.  This style is equivalent to @samp{%Y-%m-%d %H:%M}.

@item iso
List @acronym{ISO} 8601 dates for non-recent timestamps (e.g.,
@samp{2002-03-30@ }), and @acronym{ISO} 8601 month, day, hour, and
minute for recent timestamps (e.g., @samp{03-30 23:45}).  These
timestamps are uglier than @samp{long-iso} timestamps, but they carry
nearly the same information in a smaller space and their brevity helps
@command{ls} output fit within traditional 80-column output lines.
The following two @command{ls} invocations are equivalent:

@example
newline='
'
ls -l --time-style="+%Y-%m-%d $newline%m-%d %H:%M"
ls -l --time-style="iso"
@end example

@item locale
@vindex LC_TIME
List timestamps in a locale-dependent form.  For example, a Finnish
locale might list non-recent timestamps like @samp{maalis 30@ @ 2002}
and recent timestamps like @samp{maalis 30 23:45}.  Locale-dependent
timestamps typically consume more space than @samp{iso} timestamps and
are harder for programs to parse because locale conventions vary so
widely, but they are easier for many people to read.

The @env{LC_TIME} locale category specifies the timestamp format.  The
default @acronym{POSIX} locale uses timestamps like @samp{Mar 30@
@ 2002} and @samp{Mar 30 23:45}; in this locale, the following two
@command{ls} invocations are equivalent:

@example
newline='
'
ls -l --time-style="+%b %e  %Y$newline%b %e %H:%M"
ls -l --time-style="locale"
@end example

Other locales behave differently.  For example, in a German locale,
@option{--time-style="locale"} might be equivalent to
@option{--time-style="+%e. %b %Y $newline%e. %b %H:%M"}
and might generate timestamps like @samp{30. M@"ar 2002@ } and
@samp{30. M@"ar 23:45}.

@item posix-@var{style}
@vindex LC_TIME
List @acronym{POSIX}-locale timestamps if the @env{LC_TIME} locale
category is @acronym{POSIX}, @var{style} timestamps otherwise.  For
example, the default style, which is @samp{posix-long-iso}, lists
timestamps like @samp{Mar 30@ @ 2002} and @samp{Mar 30 23:45} when in
the @acronym{POSIX} locale, and like @samp{2002-03-30 23:45} otherwise.
@end table
@end table

@vindex TIME_STYLE
You can specify the default value of the @option{--time-style} option
with the environment variable @env{TIME_STYLE}; if @env{TIME_STYLE} is not set
the default style is @samp{posix-long-iso}.  @acronym{GNU} Emacs 21 and
later can parse @acronym{ISO} dates, but older Emacs versions do not, so if
you are using an older version of Emacs and specify a non-@acronym{POSIX}
locale, you may need to set @samp{TIME_STYLE="locale"}.


@node Formatting the file names
@subsection Formatting the file names

These options change how file names themselves are printed.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx --escape
@itemx --quoting-style=escape
@opindex -b
@opindex --escape
@opindex --quoting-style
@cindex backslash sequences for file names
Quote nongraphic characters in file names using alphabetic and octal
backslash sequences like those used in C.

@item -N
@itemx --literal
@itemx --quoting-style=literal
@opindex -N
@opindex --literal
@opindex --quoting-style
Do not quote file names.

@item -q
@itemx --hide-control-chars
@opindex -q
@opindex --hide-control-chars
Print question marks instead of nongraphic characters in file names.
This is the default if the output is a terminal and the program is
@command{ls}.

@item -Q
@itemx --quote-name
@itemx --quoting-style=c
@opindex -Q
@opindex --quote-name
@opindex --quoting-style
Enclose file names in double quotes and quote nongraphic characters as
in C.

@item --quoting-style=@var{word}
@opindex --quoting-style
@cindex quoting style
Use style @var{word} to quote output names.  The @var{word} should
be one of the following:
@table @samp
@item literal
Output names as-is; this is the same as the @option{-N} or
@option{--literal} option.
@item shell
Quote names for the shell if they contain shell metacharacters or would
cause ambiguous output.
@item shell-always
Quote names for the shell, even if they would normally not require quoting.
@item c
Quote names as for a C language string; this is the same as the
@option{-Q} or @option{--quote-name} option.
@item escape
Quote as with @samp{c} except omit the surrounding double-quote
characters; this is the same as the @option{-b} or @option{--escape} option.
@item clocale
Quote as with @samp{c} except use quotation marks appropriate for the
locale.
@item locale
@c Use @t instead of @samp to avoid duplicate quoting in some output styles.
Like @samp{clocale}, but quote @t{`like this'} instead of @t{"like
this"} in the default C locale.  This looks nicer on many displays.
@end table

You can specify the default value of the @option{--quoting-style} option
with the environment variable @env{QUOTING_STYLE}.  If that environment
variable is not set, the default value is @samp{literal}, but this
default may change to @samp{shell} in a future version of this package.

@item --show-control-chars
@opindex --show-control-chars
Print nongraphic characters as-is in file names.
This is the default unless the output is a terminal and the program is
@command{ls}.

@end table


@node dir invocation
@section @command{dir}: Briefly list directory contents

@pindex dir
@cindex directory listing, brief

@command{dir} (also installed as @code{d}) is equivalent to @code{ls -C
-b}; that is, by default files are listed in columns, sorted vertically,
and special characters are represented by backslash escape sequences.

@xref{ls invocation, @command{ls}}.


@node vdir invocation
@section @command{vdir}: Verbosely list directory contents

@pindex vdir
@cindex directory listing, verbose

@command{vdir} (also installed as @code{v}) is equivalent to @code{ls -l
-b}; that is, by default files are listed in long format and special
characters are represented by backslash escape sequences.

@node dircolors invocation
@section @command{dircolors}: Color setup for @code{ls}

@pindex dircolors
@cindex color setup
@cindex setup for color

@command{dircolors} outputs a sequence of shell commands to set up the
terminal for color output from @command{ls} (and @code{dir}, etc.).
Typical usage:

@example
eval `dircolors [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]`
@end example

If @var{file} is specified, @command{dircolors} reads it to determine which
colors to use for which file types and extensions.  Otherwise, a
precompiled database is used.  For details on the format of these files,
run @samp{dircolors --print-database}.

@vindex LS_COLORS
@vindex SHELL @r{environment variable, and color}
The output is a shell command to set the @env{LS_COLORS} environment
variable.  You can specify the shell syntax to use on the command line,
or @command{dircolors} will guess it from the value of the @env{SHELL}
environment variable.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -b
@itemx --sh
@itemx --bourne-shell
@opindex -b
@opindex --sh
@opindex --bourne-shell
@cindex Bourne shell syntax for color setup
@cindex @code{sh} syntax for color setup
Output Bourne shell commands.  This is the default if the @env{SHELL}
environment variable is set and does not end with @samp{csh} or
@samp{tcsh}.

@item -c
@itemx --csh
@itemx --c-shell
@opindex -c
@opindex --csh
@opindex --c-shell
@cindex C shell syntax for color setup
@cindex @code{csh} syntax for color setup
Output C shell commands.  This is the default if @code{SHELL} ends with
@code{csh} or @code{tcsh}.

@item -p
@itemx --print-database
@opindex -p
@opindex --print-database
@cindex color database, printing
@cindex database for color setup, printing
@cindex printing color database
Print the (compiled-in) default color configuration database.  This
output is itself a valid configuration file, and is fairly descriptive
of the possibilities.

@end table


@node Basic operations
@chapter Basic operations

@cindex manipulating files

This chapter describes the commands for basic file manipulation:
copying, moving (renaming), and deleting (removing).

@menu
* cp invocation::               Copy files.
* dd invocation::               Convert and copy a file.
* install invocation::          Copy files and set attributes.
* mv invocation::               Move (rename) files.
* rm invocation::               Remove files or directories.
* shred invocation::            Remove files more securely.
@end menu


@node cp invocation
@section @command{cp}: Copy files and directories

@pindex cp
@cindex copying files and directories
@cindex files, copying
@cindex directories, copying

@command{cp} copies files (or, optionally, directories).  The copy is
completely independent of the original.  You can either copy one file to
another, or copy arbitrarily many files to a destination directory.
Synopsis:

@example
cp [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source} @var{dest}
cp [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source}@dots{} @var{directory}
@end example

If the last argument names an existing directory, @command{cp} copies each
@var{source} file into that directory (retaining the same name).
Otherwise, if only two files are given, it copies the first onto the
second.  It is an error if the last argument is not a directory and more
than two non-option arguments are given.

Generally, files are written just as they are read.  For exceptions,
see the @option{--sparse} option below.

By default, @command{cp} does not copy directories.  However, the
@option{-R}, @option{-a}, and @option{-r} options cause @command{cp} to
copy recursively by descending into source directories and copying files
to corresponding destination directories.

By default, @command{cp} follows symbolic links only when not copying
recursively.  This default can be overridden with the
@option{--archive} (@option{-a}), @option{-d}, @option{--dereference}
(@option{-L}), @option{--no-dereference} (@option{-P}), and
@option{-H} options.  If more than one of these options is specified,
the last one silently overrides the others.

By default, @command{cp} copies the contents of special files only
when not copying recursively.  This default can be overridden with the
@option{--copy-contents} option.

@cindex self-backups
@cindex backups, making only
@command{cp} generally refuses to copy a file onto itself, with the
following exception: if @option{--force --backup} is specified with
@var{source} and @var{dest} identical, and referring to a regular file,
@command{cp} will make a backup file, either regular or numbered, as
specified in the usual ways (@pxref{Backup options}).  This is useful when
you simply want to make a backup of an existing file before changing it.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -a
@itemx --archive
@opindex -a
@opindex --archive
Preserve as much as possible of the structure and attributes of the
original files in the copy (but do not attempt to preserve internal
directory structure; i.e., @samp{ls -U} may list the entries in a copied
directory in a different order).
Equivalent to @option{-dpPR}.

@item -b
@itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
@opindex -b
@opindex --backup
@vindex VERSION_CONTROL
@cindex backups, making
@xref{Backup options}.
Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.
As a special case, @command{cp} makes a backup of @var{source} when the force
and backup options are given and @var{source} and @var{dest} are the same
name for an existing, regular file.  One useful application of this
combination of options is this tiny Bourne shell script:

@example
#!/bin/sh
# Usage: backup FILE...
# Create a @sc{gnu}-style backup of each listed FILE.
for i; do
  cp --backup --force "$i" "$i"
done
@end example

@item --copy-contents
@cindex directories, copying recursively
@cindex copying directories recursively
@cindex recursively copying directories
@cindex non-directories, copying as special files
If copying recursively, copy the contents of any special files (e.g.,
FIFOs and device files) as if they were regular files.  This means
trying to read the data in each source file and writing it to the
destination.  It is usually a mistake to use this option, as it
normally has undesirable effects on special files like FIFOs and the
ones typically found in the @file{/dev} directory.  In most cases,
@code{cp -R --copy-contents} will hang indefinitely trying to read
from FIFOs and special files like @file{/dev/console}, and it will
fill up your destination disk if you use it to copy @file{/dev/zero}.
This option has no effect unless copying recursively, and it does not
affect the copying of symbolic links.

@item -d
@opindex -d
@cindex symbolic links, copying
@cindex hard links, preserving
Copy symbolic links as symbolic links rather than copying the files that
they point to, and preserve hard links between source files in the copies.
Equivalent to @option{--no-dereference --preserve=links}.

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
When copying without this option and an existing destination file cannot
be opened for writing, the copy fails.  However, with @option{--force}),
when a destination file cannot be opened, @command{cp} then unlinks it and
tries to open it again.  Contrast this behavior with that enabled by
@option{--link} and @option{--symbolic-link}, whereby the destination file
is never opened but rather is unlinked unconditionally.  Also see the
description of @option{--remove-destination}.

@item -H
@opindex -H
If a command line argument specifies a symbolic link, then copy the
file it points to rather than the symbolic link itself.  However,
copy (preserving its nature) any symbolic link that is encountered
via recursive traversal.

@item -i
@itemx --interactive
@opindex -i
@opindex --interactive
Prompt whether to overwrite existing regular destination files.

@item -l
@itemx --link
@opindex -l
@opindex --link
Make hard links instead of copies of non-directories.

@item -L
@itemx --dereference
@opindex -L
@opindex --dereference
Always follow symbolic links.

@item -P
@itemx --no-dereference
@opindex -P
@opindex --no-dereference
@cindex symbolic links, copying
Copy symbolic links as symbolic links rather than copying the files that
they point to.

@item -p
@itemx @w{@kbd{--preserve}[=@var{attribute_list}]}
@opindex -p
@opindex --preserve
@cindex file information, preserving
Preserve the specified attributes of the original files.
If specified, the @var{attribute_list} must be a comma-separated list
of one or more of the following strings:

@table @samp
@itemx mode
Preserve the permission attributes.
@itemx ownership
Preserve the owner and group.  On most modern systems,
only the super-user may change the owner of a file, and regular users
may preserve the group ownership of a file only if they happen to be
a member of the desired group.
@itemx timestamps
Preserve the times of last access and last modification.
@itemx links
Preserve in the destination files
any links between corresponding source files.
@c Give examples illustrating how hard links are preserved.
@c Also, show how soft links map to hard links with -L and -H.
@itemx all
Preserve all file attributes.
Equivalent to specifying all of the above.
@c Mention ACLs here.
@end table

Using @option{--preserve} with no @var{attribute_list} is equivalent
to @option{--preserve=mode,ownership,timestamps}.

In the absence of this option, each destination file is created with the
permissions of the corresponding source file, minus the bits set in the
umask and minus the set-user-id and set-group-id bits. @xref{File permissions}.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--no-preserve}=@var{attribute_list}}
@cindex file information, preserving
Do not preserve the specified attributes.  The @var{attribute_list}
has the same form as for @option{--preserve}.

@itemx --parents
@opindex --parents
@cindex parent directories and @command{cp}
Form the name of each destination file by appending to the target
directory a slash and the specified name of the source file.  The last
argument given to @command{cp} must be the name of an existing directory.
For example, the command:

@example
cp --parents a/b/c existing_dir
@end example

@noindent
copies the file @file{a/b/c} to @file{existing_dir/a/b/c}, creating
any missing intermediate directories.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--reply}[=@var{how}]}
@opindex --reply
@cindex interactivity
Using @option{--reply=yes} makes @command{cp} act as if @samp{yes} were
given as a response to every prompt about a destination file.  That effectively
cancels any preceding @option{--interactive} or @option{-i} option.
Specify @option{--reply=no} to make @command{cp} act as if @samp{no} were
given as a response to every prompt about a destination file.
Specify @option{--reply=query} to make @command{cp} prompt the user
about each existing destination file.

@item -R
@itemx -r
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex -r
@opindex --recursive
@cindex directories, copying recursively
@cindex copying directories recursively
@cindex recursively copying directories
@cindex non-directories, copying as special files
Copy directories recursively.  Symbolic links are not followed by
default; see the @option{--archive} (@option{-a}), @option{-d},
@option{--dereference} (@option{-L}), @option{--no-dereference}
(@option{-P}), and @option{-H} options.  Special files are copied by
creating a destination file of the same type as the source; see the
@option{--copy-contents} option.  It is not portable to use
@option{-r} to copy symbolic links or special files.  On some
non-@sc{gnu} systems, @option{-r} implies the equivalent of
@option{-L} and @option{--copy-contents} for historical reasons.
Also, it is not portable to use @option{-R} to copy symbolic links
unless you also specify @option{-P}, as @acronym{POSIX} allows
implementations that dereference symbolic links by default.

@item --remove-destination
@opindex --remove-destination
Remove each existing destination file before attempting to open it
(contrast with @option{-f} above).

@item --sparse=@var{when}
@opindex --sparse=@var{when}
@cindex sparse files, copying
@cindex holes, copying files with
@findex read @r{system call, and holes}
A @dfn{sparse file} contains @dfn{holes}---a sequence of zero bytes that
does not occupy any physical disk blocks; the @samp{read} system call
reads these as zeroes.  This can both save considerable disk space and
increase speed, since many binary files contain lots of consecutive zero
bytes.  By default, @command{cp} detects holes in input source files via a crude
heuristic and makes the corresponding output file sparse as well.

The @var{when} value can be one of the following:
@table @samp
@item auto
The default behavior: the output file is sparse if the input file is sparse.

@item always
Always make the output file sparse.  This is useful when the input
file resides on a filesystem that does not support sparse files (the
most notable example is @samp{efs} filesystems in SGI IRIX 5.3 and
earlier), but the output file is on another type of filesystem.

@item never
Never make the output file sparse.
This is useful in creating a file for use with the @code{mkswap} command,
since such a file must not have any holes.
@end table

@itemx @w{@kbd{--strip-trailing-slashes}}
@opindex --strip-trailing-slashes
@cindex stripping trailing slashes
Remove any trailing slashes from each @var{source} argument.
@xref{Trailing slashes}.

@item -s
@itemx --symbolic-link
@opindex -s
@opindex --symbolic-link
@cindex symbolic links, copying with
Make symbolic links instead of copies of non-directories.  All source
file names must be absolute (starting with @samp{/}) unless the
destination files are in the current directory.  This option merely
results in an error message on systems that do not support symbolic links.

@item -S @var{suffix}
@itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
@opindex -S
@opindex --suffix
Append @var{suffix} to each backup file made with @option{-b}.
@xref{Backup options}.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--target-directory}=@var{directory}}
@opindex --target-directory
@cindex target directory
@cindex destination directory
Specify the destination @var{directory}.
@xref{Target directory}.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file before copying it.

@item -V @var{method}
@itemx --version-control=@var{method}
@opindex -V
@opindex --version-control
Change the type of backups made with @option{-b}.  The @var{method}
argument can be @samp{none} (or @samp{off}), @samp{numbered} (or
@samp{t}), @samp{existing} (or @samp{nil}), or @samp{never} (or
@samp{simple}).  @xref{Backup options}.

@item -x
@itemx --one-file-system
@opindex -x
@opindex --one-file-system
@cindex filesystems, omitting copying to different
Skip subdirectories that are on different filesystems from the one that
the copy started on.
However, mount point directories @emph{are} copied.

@end table


@node dd invocation
@section @command{dd}: Convert and copy a file

@pindex dd
@cindex converting while copying a file

@command{dd} copies a file (from standard input to standard output, by
default) with a changeable I/O block size, while optionally performing
conversions on it.  Synopsis:

@example
dd [@var{option}]@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@cindex multipliers after numbers
The numeric-valued options below (@var{bytes} and @var{blocks}) can be
followed by a multiplier: @samp{b}=512, @samp{c}=1,
@samp{w}=2, @samp{x@var{m}}=@var{m}, or any of the
standard block size suffixes like @samp{k}=1024 (@pxref{Block size}).

Use different @command{dd} invocations to use different block sizes for
skipping and I/O.  For example, the following shell commands copy data
in 512 KiB blocks between a disk and a tape, but do not save or restore a
4 KiB label at the start of the disk:

@example
disk=/dev/rdsk/c0t1d0s2
tape=/dev/rmt/0

# Copy all but the label from disk to tape.
(dd bs=4k skip=1 count=0 && dd bs=512k) <$disk >$tape

# Copy from tape back to disk, but leave the disk label alone.
(dd bs=4k seek=1 count=0 && dd bs=512k) <$tape >$disk
@end example

@table @samp

@item if=@var{file}
@opindex if
Read from @var{file} instead of standard input.

@item of=@var{file}
@opindex of
Write to @var{file} instead of standard output.  Unless
@samp{conv=notrunc} is given, @command{dd} truncates @var{file} to zero
bytes (or the size specified with @samp{seek=}).

@item ibs=@var{bytes}
@opindex ibs
@cindex block size of input
@cindex input block size
Read @var{bytes} bytes at a time.

@item obs=@var{bytes}
@opindex obs
@cindex block size of output
@cindex output block size
Write @var{bytes} bytes at a time.

@item bs=@var{bytes}
@opindex bs
@cindex block size
Both read and write @var{bytes} bytes at a time.  This overrides
@samp{ibs} and @samp{obs}.

@item cbs=@var{bytes}
@opindex cbs
@cindex block size of conversion
@cindex conversion block size
Convert @var{bytes} bytes at a time.

@item skip=@var{blocks}
@opindex skip
Skip @var{blocks} @samp{ibs}-byte blocks in the input file before copying.

@item seek=@var{blocks}
@opindex seek
Skip @var{blocks} @samp{obs}-byte blocks in the output file before copying.

@item count=@var{blocks}
@opindex count
Copy @var{blocks} @samp{ibs}-byte blocks from the input file, instead
of everything until the end of the file.

@item conv=@var{conversion}[,@var{conversion}]@dots{}
@opindex conv
Convert the file as specified by the @var{conversion} argument(s).
(No spaces around any comma(s).)

Conversions:

@table @samp

@item ascii
@opindex ascii@r{, converting to}
Convert @acronym{EBCDIC} to @acronym{ASCII}.

@item ebcdic
@opindex ebcdic@r{, converting to}
Convert @acronym{ASCII} to @acronym{EBCDIC}.

@item ibm
@opindex alternate ebcdic@r{, converting to}
Convert @acronym{ASCII} to alternate @acronym{EBCDIC}.

@item block
@opindex block @r{(space-padding)}
For each line in the input, output @samp{cbs} bytes, replacing the
input newline with a space and padding with spaces as necessary.

@item unblock
@opindex unblock
Replace trailing spaces in each @samp{cbs}-sized input block with a
newline.

@item lcase
@opindex lcase@r{, converting to}
Change uppercase letters to lowercase.

@item ucase
@opindex ucase@r{, converting to}
Change lowercase letters to uppercase.

@item swab
@opindex swab @r{(byte-swapping)}
@cindex byte-swapping
Swap every pair of input bytes.  @sc{gnu} @command{dd}, unlike others, works
when an odd number of bytes are read---the last byte is simply copied
(since there is nothing to swap it with).

@item noerror
@opindex noerror
@cindex read errors, ignoring
Continue after read errors.

@item notrunc
@opindex notrunc
@cindex truncating output file, avoiding
Do not truncate the output file.

@item sync
@opindex sync @r{(padding with nulls)}
Pad every input block to size of @samp{ibs} with trailing zero bytes.
When used with @samp{block} or @samp{unblock}, pad with spaces instead of
zero bytes.
@end table

@end table


@node install invocation
@section @command{install}: Copy files and set attributes

@pindex install
@cindex copying files and setting attributes

@command{install} copies files while setting their permission modes and, if
possible, their owner and group.  Synopses:

@example
install [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source} @var{dest}
install [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source}@dots{} @var{directory}
install -d [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{directory}@dots{}
@end example

In the first of these, the @var{source} file is copied to the @var{dest}
target file.  In the second, each of the @var{source} files are copied
to the destination @var{directory}.  In the last, each @var{directory}
(and any missing parent directories) is created.

@cindex Makefiles, installing programs in
@command{install} is similar to @code{cp}, but allows you to control the
attributes of destination files.  It is typically used in Makefiles to
copy programs into their destination directories.  It refuses to copy
files onto themselves.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
@opindex -b
@opindex --backup
@vindex VERSION_CONTROL
@cindex backups, making
@xref{Backup options}.
Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.

@item -c
@opindex -c
Ignored; for compatibility with old Unix versions of @command{install}.

@item -d
@itemx --directory
@opindex -d
@opindex --directory
@cindex directories, creating with given attributes
@cindex parent directories, creating missing
@cindex leading directories, creating missing
Create each given directory and any missing parent directories, setting
the owner, group and mode as given on the command line or to the
defaults.  It also gives any parent directories it creates those
attributes.  (This is different from the SunOS 4.x @command{install}, which
gives directories that it creates the default attributes.)

@item -g @var{group}
@itemx --group=@var{group}
@opindex -g
@opindex --group
@cindex group ownership of installed files, setting
Set the group ownership of installed files or directories to
@var{group}. The default is the process' current group.  @var{group}
may be either a group name or a numeric group id.

@item -m @var{mode}
@itemx --mode=@var{mode}
@opindex -m
@opindex --mode
@cindex permissions of installed files, setting
Set the permissions for the installed file or directory to @var{mode},
which can be either an octal number, or a symbolic mode as in
@command{chmod}, with 0 as the point of departure (@pxref{File
permissions}).  The default mode is @samp{u=rwx,go=rx}---read, write,
and execute for the owner, and read and execute for group and other.

@item -o @var{owner}
@itemx --owner=@var{owner}
@opindex -o
@opindex --owner
@cindex ownership of installed files, setting
@cindex appropriate privileges
@vindex root @r{as default owner}
If @command{install} has appropriate privileges (is run as root), set the
ownership of installed files or directories to @var{owner}. The default
is @code{root}.  @var{owner} may be either a user name or a numeric user
ID.

@item -p
@itemx --preserve-timestamps
@opindex -p
@opindex --preserve-timestamps
@cindex timestamps of installed files, preserving
Set the time of last access and the time of last modification of each
installed file to match those of each corresponding original file.
When a file is installed without this option, its last access and
last modification times are both set to the time of installation.
This option is useful if you want to use the last modification times
of installed files to keep track of when they were last built as opposed
to when they were last installed.

@item -s
@itemx --strip
@opindex -s
@opindex --strip
@cindex symbol table information, stripping
@cindex stripping symbol table information
Strip the symbol tables from installed binary executables.

@item -S @var{suffix}
@itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
@opindex -S
@opindex --suffix
Append @var{suffix} to each backup file made with @option{-b}.
@xref{Backup options}.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--target-directory}=@var{directory}}
@opindex --target-directory
@cindex target directory
@cindex destination directory
Specify the destination @var{directory}.
@xref{Target directory}.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file before copying it.

@item -V @var{method}
@itemx --version-control=@var{method}
@opindex -V
@opindex --version-control
Change the type of backups made with @option{-b}.  The @var{method}
argument can be @samp{none} (or @samp{off}), @samp{numbered} (or
@samp{t}), @samp{existing} (or @samp{nil}), or @samp{never} (or
@samp{simple}).  @xref{Backup options}.

@end table


@node mv invocation
@section @command{mv}: Move (rename) files

@pindex mv

@command{mv} moves or renames files (or directories).  Synopsis:

@example
mv [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source} @var{dest}
mv [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{source}@dots{} @var{directory}
@end example

If the last argument names an existing directory, @command{mv} moves each
other given file into a file with the same name in that directory.
Otherwise, if only two files are given, it renames the first as
the second.  It is an error if the last argument is not a directory
and more than two files are given.

@command{mv} can move any type of file from one filesystem to another.
Prior to version @code{4.0} of the fileutils,
@command{mv} could move only regular files between filesystems.
For example, now @command{mv} can move an entire directory hierarchy
including special device files from one partition to another.  It first
uses some of the same code that's used by @code{cp -a} to copy the
requested directories and files, then (assuming the copy succeeded)
it removes the originals.  If the copy fails, then the part that was
copied to the destination partition is removed.  If you were to copy
three directories from one partition to another and the copy of the first
directory succeeded, but the second didn't, the first would be left on
the destination partition and the second and third would be left on the
original partition.

@cindex prompting, and @command{mv}
If a destination file exists but is normally unwritable, standard input
is a terminal, and the @option{-f} or @option{--force} option is not given,
@command{mv} prompts the user for whether to replace the file.  (You might
own the file, or have write permission on its directory.)  If the
response does not begin with @samp{y} or @samp{Y}, the file is skipped.

@emph{Warning}: If you try to move a symlink that points to a directory,
and you specify the symlink with a trailing slash, then @command{mv}
doesn't move the symlink but instead moves the directory referenced
by the symlink.  @xref{Trailing slashes}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
@opindex -b
@opindex --backup
@vindex VERSION_CONTROL
@cindex backups, making
@xref{Backup options}.
Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
@cindex prompts, omitting
Do not prompt the user before removing a destination file.

@item -i
@itemx --interactive
@opindex -i
@opindex --interactive
@cindex prompts, forcing
Prompt whether to overwrite each existing destination file, regardless
of its permissions.  If the response does not begin with @samp{y} or
@samp{Y}, the file is skipped.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--reply}[=@var{how}]}
@opindex --reply
@cindex interactivity
Specifying @option{--reply=yes} is equivalent to using @option{--force}.
Specify @option{--reply=no} to make @command{mv} act as if @samp{no} were
given as a response to every prompt about a destination file.
Specify @option{--reply=query} to make @command{mv} prompt the user
about each existing destination file.

@item -u
@itemx --update
@opindex -u
@opindex --update
@cindex newer files, moving only
Do not move a non-directory that has an existing destination with the
same or newer modification time.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file before moving it.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--strip-trailing-slashes}}
@opindex --strip-trailing-slashes
@cindex stripping trailing slashes
Remove any trailing slashes from each @var{source} argument.
@xref{Trailing slashes}.

@item -S @var{suffix}
@itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
@opindex -S
@opindex --suffix
Append @var{suffix} to each backup file made with @option{-b}.
@xref{Backup options}.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--target-directory}=@var{directory}}
@opindex --target-directory
@cindex target directory
@cindex destination directory
Specify the destination @var{directory}.
@xref{Target directory}.

@item -V @var{method}
@itemx --version-control=@var{method}
@opindex -V
@opindex --version-control
Change the type of backups made with @option{-b}.  The @var{method}
argument can be @samp{none} (or @samp{off}), @samp{numbered} (or
@samp{t}), @samp{existing} (or @samp{nil}), or @samp{never} (or
@samp{simple}).  @xref{Backup options}.

@end table


@node rm invocation
@section @command{rm}: Remove files or directories

@pindex rm
@cindex removing files or directories

@command{rm} removes each given @var{file}.  By default, it does not remove
directories.  Synopsis:

@example
rm [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

@cindex prompting, and @command{rm}
If a file is unwritable, standard input is a terminal, and the @option{-f}
or @option{--force} option is not given, or the @option{-i} or
@option{--interactive} option @emph{is} given, @command{rm} prompts the user
for whether to remove the file.  If the response does not begin with
@samp{y} or @samp{Y}, the file is skipped.

@emph{Warning}: If you use @command{rm} to remove a file, it is usually
possible to recover the contents of that file.  If you want more assurance
that the contents are truly unrecoverable, consider using @command{shred}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -d
@itemx --directory
@opindex -d
@opindex --directory
@cindex directories, removing with @code{unlink}
@findex unlink
@pindex fsck
Attempt to remove directories using the @code{unlink} function rather than
the @code{rmdir} function, and
don't require a directory to be empty before trying to unlink it.  This works
only if you have appropriate privileges and if your operating system supports
@code{unlink} for directories.  Because unlinking a directory causes any files
in the deleted directory to become unreferenced, it is wise to @command{fsck}
the filesystem after doing this.

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
Ignore nonexistent files and never prompt the user.
Ignore any previous @option{--interactive} (@option{-i}) option.

@item -i
@itemx --interactive
@opindex -i
@opindex --interactive
Prompt whether to remove each file.  If the response does not begin
with @samp{y} or @samp{Y}, the file is skipped.
Ignore any previous @option{--force} (@option{-f}) option.

@item -r
@itemx -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -r
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex directories, removing (recursively)
Remove the contents of directories recursively.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file before removing it.

@end table

@cindex files beginning with @samp{-}, removing
@cindex @samp{-}, removing files beginning with
One common question is how to remove files whose names begin with a
@samp{-}.  @sc{gnu} @command{rm}, like every program that uses the @code{getopt}
function to parse its arguments, lets you use the @samp{--} option to
indicate that all following arguments are non-options.  To remove a file
called @file{-f} in the current directory, you could type either:

@example
rm -- -f
@end example

@noindent
or:

@example
rm ./-f
@end example

@opindex - @r{and Unix @command{rm}}
The Unix @command{rm} program's use of a single @samp{-} for this purpose
predates the development of the getopt standard syntax.


@node shred invocation
@section @command{shred}: Remove files more securely

@pindex shred
@cindex data, erasing
@cindex erasing data

@command{shred} overwrites devices or files, to help prevent even
very expensive hardware from recovering the data.

Ordinarily when you remove a file (@pxref{rm invocation}), the data is
not actually destroyed.  Only the index listing where the file is
stored is destroyed, and the storage is made available for reuse.
There are undelete utilities that will attempt to reconstruct the index
and can bring the file back if the parts were not reused.

On a busy system with a nearly-full drive, space can get reused in a few
seconds.  But there is no way to know for sure.  If you have sensitive
data, you may want to be sure that recovery is not possible by actually
overwriting the file with non-sensitive data.

However, even after doing that, it is possible to take the disk back
to a laboratory and use a lot of sensitive (and expensive) equipment
to look for the faint ``echoes'' of the original data underneath the
overwritten data.  If the data has only been overwritten once, it's not
even that hard.

The best way to remove something irretrievably is to destroy the media
it's on with acid, melt it down, or the like.  For cheap removable media
like floppy disks, this is the preferred method.  However, hard drives
are expensive and hard to melt, so the @command{shred} utility tries
to achieve a similar effect non-destructively.

This uses many overwrite passes, with the data patterns chosen to
maximize the damage they do to the old data.  While this will work on
floppies, the patterns are designed for best effect on hard drives.
For more details, see the source code and Peter Gutmann's paper
@cite{Secure Deletion of Data from Magnetic and Solid-State Memory},
from the proceedings of the Sixth USENIX Security Symposium (San Jose,
California, 22--25 July, 1996).  The paper is also available online
@url{http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~pgut001/pubs/secure_del.html}.

@strong{Please note} that @command{shred} relies on a very important assumption:
that the filesystem overwrites data in place.  This is the traditional
way to do things, but many modern filesystem designs do not satisfy this
assumption.  Exceptions include:

@itemize @bullet

@item
Log-structured or journaled filesystems, such as those supplied with
AIX and Solaris, and JFS, ReiserFS, XFS, Ext3, etc.

@item
Filesystems that write redundant data and carry on even if some writes
fail, such as RAID-based filesystems.

@item
Filesystems that make snapshots, such as Network Appliance's NFS server.

@item
Filesystems that cache in temporary locations, such as NFS version 3
clients.

@item
Compressed filesystems.
@end itemize

If you are not sure how your filesystem operates, then you should assume
that it does not overwrite data in place, which means that shred cannot
reliably operate on regular files in your filesystem.

Generally speaking, it is more reliable to shred a device than a file,
since this bypasses the problem of filesystem design mentioned above.
However, even shredding devices is not always completely reliable.  For
example, most disks map out bad sectors invisibly to the application; if
the bad sectors contain sensitive data, @command{shred} won't be able to
destroy it.

@command{shred} makes no attempt to detect or report this problem, just as
it makes no attempt to do anything about backups.  However, since it is
more reliable to shred devices than files, @command{shred} by default does
not truncate or remove the output file.  This default is more suitable
for devices, which typically cannot be truncated and should not be
removed.

Finally, consider the risk of backups and mirrors.
File system backups and remote mirrors may contain copies of the
file that cannot be removed, and that will allow a shredded file
to be recovered later.  So if you keep any data you may later want
to destroy using @command{shred}, be sure that it is not backed up or mirrored.

@example
shred [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file}[@dots{}]
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
@cindex force deletion
Override file permissions if necessary to allow overwriting.

@item -@var{NUMBER}
@itemx -n @var{NUMBER}
@itemx --iterations=@var{NUMBER}
@opindex -n @var{NUMBER}
@opindex --iterations=@var{NUMBER}
@cindex iterations, selecting the number of
By default, @command{shred} uses 25 passes of overwrite.  This is enough
for all of the useful overwrite patterns to be used at least once.
You can reduce this to save time, or increase it if you have a lot of
time to waste.

@item -s @var{BYTES}
@itemx --size=@var{BYTES}
@opindex -s @var{BYTES}
@opindex --size=@var{BYTES}
@cindex size of file to shred
Shred the first @var{BYTES} bytes of the file. The default is to shred
the whole file.  @var{BYTES} can be followed by a size specification like
@samp{K}, @samp{M}, or @samp{G} to specify a multiple. @xref{Block size}.

@item -u
@itemx --remove
@opindex -u
@opindex --remove
@cindex removing files after shredding
After shredding a file, truncate it (if possible) and then remove it.
If a file has multiple links, only the named links will be removed.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Display status updates as sterilization proceeds.

@item -x
@itemx --exact
@opindex -x
@opindex --exact
Normally, shred rounds the file size up to the next multiple of
the filesystem block size to fully erase the last block of the file.
This option suppresses that behavior.
Thus, by default if you shred a 10-byte file on a system with 512-byte
blocks, the resulting file will be 512 bytes long.  With this option,
shred does not increase the size of the file.

@item -z
@itemx --zero
@opindex -z
@opindex --zero
Normally, the last pass that @command{shred} writes is made up of
random data.  If this would be conspicuous on your hard drive (for
example, because it looks like encrypted data), or you just think
it's tidier, the @option{--zero} option adds an additional overwrite pass with
all zero bits.  This is in addition to the number of passes specified
by the @option{--iterations} option.

@item -
@opindex -
Shred standard output.

This argument is considered an option.  If the common @samp{--} option has
been used to indicate the end of options on the command line, then @samp{-}
will be interpreted as an ordinary file name.

The intended use of this is to shred a removed temporary file.
For example

@example
i=`tempfile -m 0600`
exec 3<>"$i"
rm -- "$i"
echo "Hello, world" >&3
shred - >&3
exec 3>-
@end example

Note that the shell command @samp{shred - >file} does not shred the
contents of @var{file}, since it truncates @var{file} before invoking
@command{shred}.  Use the command @samp{shred file} or (if using a
Bourne-compatible shell) the command @samp{shred - 1<>file} instead.

@end table

You might use the following command to erase all trace of the
filesystem you'd created on the floppy disk in your first drive.
That command takes about 20 minutes to erase a ``1.44MB'' (actually
1440 KiB) floppy.

@example
shred --verbose /dev/fd0
@end example

Similarly, to erase all data on a selected partition of
your hard disk, you could give a command like this:

@example
shred --verbose /dev/sda5
@end example

@node Special file types
@chapter Special file types

@cindex special file types
@cindex file types, special

This chapter describes commands which create special types of files (and
@command{rmdir}, which removes directories, one special file type).

@cindex special file types
@cindex file types
Although Unix-like operating systems have markedly fewer special file
types than others, not @emph{everything} can be treated only as the
undifferentiated byte stream of @dfn{normal files}.  For example, when a
file is created or removed, the system must record this information,
which it does in a @dfn{directory}---a special type of file.  Although
you can read directories as normal files, if you're curious, in order
for the system to do its job it must impose a structure, a certain
order, on the bytes of the file.  Thus it is a ``special'' type of file.

Besides directories, other special file types include named pipes
(FIFOs), symbolic links, sockets, and so-called @dfn{special files}.

@menu
* link invocation::             Make a hard link via the link syscall
* ln invocation::               Make links between files.
* mkdir invocation::            Make directories.
* mkfifo invocation::           Make FIFOs (named pipes).
* mknod invocation::            Make block or character special files.
* readlink invocation::         Print the referent of a symbolic link.
* rmdir invocation::            Remove empty directories.
* unlink invocation::           Remove files via the unlink syscall
@end menu


@node link invocation
@section @command{link}: Make a hard link via the link syscall

@pindex link
@cindex links, creating
@cindex hard links, creating
@cindex creating links (hard only)

@command{link} creates a single hard link at a time.
It is a minimalist interface to the system-provided
@code{link} function.  @xref{Hard Links, , , libc,
The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.
Synopsis:

@example
link @var{filename} @var{linkname}
@end example

@var{filename} must specify an existing file, and @var{linkname}
must specify a nonexistent entry in an existing directory.
@command{link} simply calls @code{link (@var{filename}, @var{linkname})}
to create the link.

@node ln invocation
@section @command{ln}: Make links between files

@pindex ln
@cindex links, creating
@cindex hard links, creating
@cindex symbolic (soft) links, creating
@cindex creating links (hard or soft)

@cindex filesystems and hard links
@command{ln} makes links between files.  By default, it makes hard links;
with the @option{-s} option, it makes symbolic (or @dfn{soft}) links.
Synopses:

@example
ln [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{target} [@var{linkname}]
ln [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{target}@dots{} @var{directory}
@end example

@itemize @bullet

@item If the last argument names an existing directory, @command{ln} creates a
link to each @var{target} file in that directory, using the
@var{target}s' names.  (But see the description of the
@option{--no-dereference} option below.)

@item If two filenames are given, @command{ln} creates a link from the
second to the first.

@item If one @var{target} is given, @command{ln} creates a link to that
file in the current directory.

@item It is an error if the last argument is not a directory and more
than two files are given.  Without @option{-f} or @option{-i} (see below),
@command{ln} will not remove an existing file.  Use the @option{--backup}
option to make @command{ln} rename existing files.

@end itemize

@cindex hard link, defined
@cindex inode, and hard links
A @dfn{hard link} is another name for an existing file; the link and the
original are indistinguishable.  Technically speaking, they share the
same inode, and the inode contains all the information about a
file---indeed, it is not incorrect to say that the inode @emph{is} the
file.  On all existing implementations, you cannot make a hard link to
a directory, and hard links cannot cross filesystem boundaries.  (These
restrictions are not mandated by @acronym{POSIX}, however.)

@cindex dereferencing symbolic links
@cindex symbolic link, defined
@dfn{Symbolic links} (@dfn{symlinks} for short), on the other hand, are
a special file type (which not all kernels support: System V release 3
(and older) systems lack symlinks) in which the link file actually
refers to a different file, by name.  When most operations (opening,
reading, writing, and so on) are passed the symbolic link file, the
kernel automatically @dfn{dereferences} the link and operates on the
target of the link.  But some operations (e.g., removing) work on the
link file itself, rather than on its target.  @xref{Symbolic Links,,,
libc, The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -b
@itemx @w{@kbd{--backup}[=@var{method}]}
@opindex -b
@opindex --backup
@vindex VERSION_CONTROL
@cindex backups, making
@xref{Backup options}.
Make a backup of each file that would otherwise be overwritten or removed.

@item -d
@itemx -F
@itemx --directory
@opindex -d
@opindex -F
@opindex --directory
@cindex hard links to directories
Allow the super-user to make hard links to directories.

@item -f
@itemx --force
@opindex -f
@opindex --force
Remove existing destination files.

@item -i
@itemx --interactive
@opindex -i
@opindex --interactive
@cindex prompting, and @command{ln}
Prompt whether to remove existing destination files.

@item -n
@itemx --no-dereference
@opindex -n
@opindex --no-dereference
When given an explicit destination that is a symlink to a directory,
treat that destination as if it were a normal file.

When the destination is an actual directory (not a symlink to one),
there is no ambiguity.  The link is created in that directory.
But when the specified destination is a symlink to a directory,
there are two ways to treat the user's request.  @command{ln} can
treat the destination just as it would a normal directory and create
the link in it.  On the other hand, the destination can be viewed as a
non-directory---as the symlink itself.  In that case, @command{ln}
must delete or backup that symlink before creating the new link.
The default is to treat a destination that is a symlink to a directory
just like a directory.

@item -s
@itemx --symbolic
@opindex -s
@opindex --symbolic
Make symbolic links instead of hard links.  This option merely produces
an error message on systems that do not support symbolic links.

@item -S @var{suffix}
@itemx --suffix=@var{suffix}
@opindex -S
@opindex --suffix
Append @var{suffix} to each backup file made with @option{-b}.
@xref{Backup options}.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--target-directory}=@var{directory}}
@opindex --target-directory
@cindex target directory
@cindex destination directory
Specify the destination @var{directory}.
@xref{Target directory}.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print the name of each file before linking it.

@item -V @var{method}
@itemx --version-control=@var{method}
@opindex -V
@opindex --version-control
Change the type of backups made with @option{-b}.  The @var{method}
argument can be @samp{none} (or @samp{off}), @samp{numbered} (or
@samp{t}), @samp{existing} (or @samp{nil}), or @samp{never} (or
@samp{simple}).  @xref{Backup options}.

@end table

Examples:

@smallexample
ln -s /some/name  # creates link ./name pointing to /some/name
ln -s /some/name myname  # creates link ./myname pointing to /some/name
ln -s a b ..      # creates links ../a and ../b pointing to ./a and ./b
@end smallexample


@node mkdir invocation
@section @command{mkdir}: Make directories

@pindex mkdir
@cindex directories, creating
@cindex creating directories

@command{mkdir} creates directories with the specified names.  Synopsis:

@example
mkdir [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{name}@dots{}
@end example

If a @var{name} is an existing file but not a directory, @command{mkdir} prints a
warning message on stderr and will exit with a status of 1 after
processing any remaining @var{name}s.  The same is done when a @var{name} is an
existing directory and the -p option is not given.  If a @var{name} is an
existing directory and the -p option is given, @command{mkdir} will ignore it.
That is, @command{mkdir} will not print a warning, raise an error, or change
the mode of the directory (even if the -m option is given), and will
move on to processing any remaining @var{name}s.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -m @var{mode}
@itemx --mode=@var{mode}
@opindex -m
@opindex --mode
@cindex modes of created directories, setting
Set the mode of created directories to @var{mode}, which is symbolic as
in @command{chmod} and uses @samp{a=rwx} (read, write and execute allowed for
everyone) minus the bits set in the umask for the point of the
departure.  @xref{File permissions}.

@item -p
@itemx --parents
@opindex -p
@opindex --parents
@cindex parent directories, creating
Make any missing parent directories for each argument.  The mode for parent
directories is set to the umask modified by @samp{u+wx}.
Ignore arguments corresponding to existing directories.

@item -v
@item --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Print a message for each created directory.  This is most useful with
@option{--parents}.
@end table


@node mkfifo invocation
@section @command{mkfifo}: Make FIFOs (named pipes)

@pindex mkfifo
@cindex FIFOs, creating
@cindex named pipes, creating
@cindex creating FIFOs (named pipes)

@command{mkfifo} creates FIFOs (also called @dfn{named pipes}) with the
specified names.  Synopsis:

@example
mkfifo [@var{option}] @var{name}@dots{}
@end example

A @dfn{FIFO} is a special file type that permits independent processes
to communicate.  One process opens the FIFO file for writing, and
another for reading, after which data can flow as with the usual
anonymous pipe in shells or elsewhere.

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -m @var{mode}
@itemx --mode=@var{mode}
@opindex -m
@opindex --mode
@cindex modes of created FIFOs, setting
Set the mode of created FIFOs to @var{mode}, which is symbolic as in
@command{chmod} and uses @samp{a=rw} (read and write allowed for everyone) minus
the bits set in the umask for the point of departure.  @xref{File permissions}.

@end table


@node mknod invocation
@section @command{mknod}: Make block or character special files

@pindex mknod
@cindex block special files, creating
@cindex character special files, creating

@command{mknod} creates a FIFO, character special file, or block special
file with the specified name.  Synopsis:

@example
mknod [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{name} @var{type} [@var{major} @var{minor}]
@end example

@cindex special files
@cindex block special files
@cindex character special files
Unlike the phrase ``special file type'' above, the term @dfn{special
file} has a technical meaning on Unix: something that can generate or
receive data.  Usually this corresponds to a physical piece of hardware,
e.g., a printer or a disk.  (These files are typically created at
system-configuration time.)  The @command{mknod} command is what creates
files of this type.  Such devices can be read either a character at a
time or a ``block'' (many characters) at a time, hence we say there are
@dfn{block special} files and @dfn{character special} files.

The arguments after @var{name} specify the type of file to make:

@table @samp

@item p
@opindex p @r{for FIFO file}
for a FIFO

@item b
@opindex b @r{for block special file}
for a block special file

@item c
@c Don't document the `u' option -- it's just a synonym for `c'.
@c Do *any* versions of mknod still use it?
@c @itemx u
@opindex c @r{for character special file}
@c @opindex u @r{for character special file}
for a character special file

@end table

When making a block or character special file, the major and minor
device numbers must be given after the file type.
If a major or minor device number begins with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X},
it is interpreted as hexadecimal; otherwise, if it begins with @samp{0},
as octal; otherwise, as decimal.

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -m @var{mode}
@itemx --mode=@var{mode}
@opindex -m
@opindex --mode
Set the mode of created files to @var{mode}, which is symbolic as in
@command{chmod} and uses @samp{a=rw} minus the bits set in the umask as the point
of departure.  @xref{File permissions}.

@end table


@node readlink invocation
@section @command{readlink}: Print the referent of a symbolic link

@pindex readlink
@cindex displaying value of a symbolic link

@command{readlink} may work in one of two supported modes:

@table @samp

@item Readlink mode

@command{readlink} outputs the value of the given symbolic link.
If @command{readlink} is invoked with an argument other than the pathname
of a symbolic link, it exits with a non-zero exit code.

@item Canonicalize mode

@command{readlink} outputs the absolute name of the given file which contains
no `.', `..' components nor any repeated path separators (`/') or symlinks.
In any of the path components is missing or unavailable,
it exits with a non-zero exit code.

@end table

@example
readlink [@var{option}] @var{file}
@end example

By default, @command{readlink} operates in readlink mode.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -f
@itemx --canonicalize
@opindex -f
@opindex --canonicalize
Activate canonicalize mode.

@item -n
@itemx --no-newline
@opindex -n
@opindex --no-newline
Do not output the trailing newline.

@item -s
@itemx -q
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -s
@opindex -q
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
Suppress most error messages.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Report error messages.

@end table

The @command{readlink} utility first appeared in OpenBSD 2.1.


@node rmdir invocation
@section @command{rmdir}: Remove empty directories

@pindex rmdir
@cindex removing empty directories
@cindex directories, removing empty

@command{rmdir} removes empty directories.  Synopsis:

@example
rmdir [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{directory}@dots{}
@end example

If any @var{directory} argument does not refer to an existing empty
directory, it is an error.

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item --ignore-fail-on-non-empty
@opindex --ignore-fail-on-non-empty
@cindex directory deletion, ignoring failures
Ignore each failure to remove a directory that is solely because
the directory is non-empty.

@item -p
@itemx --parents
@opindex -p
@opindex --parents
@cindex parent directories, removing
Remove @var{directory}, then try to remove each component of @var{directory}.
So, for example, @samp{rmdir -p a/b/c} is similar to @samp{rmdir a/b/c a/b a}.
As such, it fails if any of those directories turns out not to be empty.
Use the @option{--ignore-fail-on-non-empty} option to make it so such
a failure does not evoke a diagnostic and does not cause @command{rmdir} to
exit unsuccessfully.

@item -v
@item --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
@cindex directory deletion, reporting
Give a diagnostic for each successful removal.
@var{directory} is removed.

@end table

@xref{rm invocation}, for how to remove non-empty directories (recursively).

@node unlink invocation
@section @command{unlink}: Remove files via the unlink syscall

@pindex unlink
@cindex removing files or directories (via the unlink syscall)

@command{unlink} deletes a single specified file name.
It is a minimalist interface to the system-provided
@code{unlink} function.  @xref{Deleting Files, , , libc,
The GNU C Library Reference Manual}.  Synopsis:

@example
unlink @var{filename}
@end example

On some systems @code{unlink} can be used to delete the name of a
directory.  On others, it can be used that way only by a privileged user.
In the GNU system @code{unlink} can never delete the name of a directory.

By default, @command{unlink} honors the @option{--help} and @option{--version}
options.  That makes it a little harder to remove files named
@code{--help} and @code{--version}, so when the environment variable
@env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, @command{unlink} treats such a command line
arguments not as an option, but as an operand.


@node Changing file attributes
@chapter Changing file attributes

@cindex changing file attributes
@cindex file attributes, changing
@cindex attributes, file

A file is not merely its contents, a name, and a file type
(@pxref{Special file types}).  A file also has an owner (a userid), a
group (a group id), permissions (what the owner can do with the file,
what people in the group can do, and what everyone else can do), various
timestamps, and other information.  Collectively, we call these a file's
@dfn{attributes}.

These commands change file attributes.

@menu
* chgrp invocation::            Change file groups.
* chmod invocation::            Change access permissions.
* chown invocation::            Change file owners and groups.
* touch invocation::            Change file timestamps.
@end menu


@node chown invocation
@section @command{chown}: Change file owner and group

@pindex chown
@cindex file ownership, changing
@cindex group ownership, changing
@cindex changing file ownership
@cindex changing group ownership

@command{chown} changes the user and/or group ownership of each given @var{file}
to @var{new-owner} or to the user and group of an existing reference file.
Synopsis:

@example
chown [@var{option}]@dots{} @{@var{new-owner} | --reference=@var{ref_file}@} @var{file}@dots{}
@end example

If used, @var{new-owner} specifies the new owner and/or group as follows
(with no embedded white space):

@example
[@var{owner}] [ [:] [@var{group}] ]
@end example

Specifically:

@table @var
@item owner
If only an @var{owner} (a user name or numeric user id) is given, that
user is made the owner of each given file, and the files' group is not
changed.

@itemx owner@samp{:}group
If the @var{owner} is followed by a colon and a @var{group} (a
group name or numeric group id), with no spaces between them, the group
ownership of the files is changed as well (to @var{group}).

@itemx owner@samp{:}
If a colon but no group name follows @var{owner}, that user is
made the owner of the files and the group of the files is changed to
@var{owner}'s login group.

@itemx @samp{:}group
If the colon and following @var{group} are given, but the owner
is omitted, only the group of the files is changed; in this case,
@command{chown} performs the same function as @command{chgrp}.

@end table

You may use @samp{.} in place of the @samp{:} separator.  This is a
@sc{gnu} extension for compatibility with older scripts.
New scripts should avoid the use of @samp{.} because @sc{gnu} @command{chown}
may fail if @var{owner} contains @samp{.} characters.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --changes
@opindex -c
@opindex --changes
@cindex changed owners, verbosely describing
Verbosely describe the action for each @var{file} whose ownership
actually changes.

@item -f
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -f
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
@cindex error messages, omitting
Do not print error messages about files whose ownership cannot be
changed.

@itemx @w{@kbd{--from}=@var{old-owner}}
@opindex --from
@cindex symbolic links, changing owner
Change a @var{file}'s ownership only if it has current attributes specified
by @var{old-owner}.  @var{old-owner} has the same form as @var{new-owner}
described above.
This option is useful primarily from a security standpoint in that
it narrows considerably the window of potential abuse.
For example, to reflect a UID numbering change for one user's files
without an option like this, @code{root} might run

@smallexample
find / -owner OLDUSER -print0 | xargs -0 chown NEWUSER
@end smallexample

But that is dangerous because the interval between when the @code{find}
tests the existing file's owner and when the @command{chown} is actually run
may be quite large.
One way to narrow the gap would be to invoke chown for each file
as it is found:

@example
find / -owner OLDUSER -exec chown NEWUSER @{@} \;
@end example

But that is very slow if there are many affected files.
With this option, it is safer (the gap is narrower still)
though still not perfect:

@example
chown -R --from=OLDUSER NEWUSER /
@end example

@item --dereference
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, changing owner
@findex lchown
Do not act on symbolic links themselves but rather on what they point to.

@item -h
@itemx --no-dereference
@opindex -h
@opindex --no-dereference
@cindex symbolic links, changing owner
@findex lchown
Act on symbolic links themselves instead of what they point to.
This is the default.
This mode relies on the @code{lchown} system call.
On systems that do not provide the @code{lchown} system call,
@command{chown} fails when a file specified on the command line
is a symbolic link.
By default, no diagnostic is issued for symbolic links encountered
during a recursive traversal, but see @option{--verbose}.

@item --reference=@var{ref_file}
@opindex --reference
Change the user and group of each @var{file} to be the same as those of
@var{ref_file}.  If @var{ref_file} is a symbolic link, do not use the
user and group of the symbolic link, but rather those of the file it
refers to.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Output a diagnostic for every file processed.
If a symbolic link is encountered during a recursive traversal
on a system without the @code{lchown} system call, and @option{--no-dereference}
is in effect, then issue a diagnostic saying neither the symbolic link nor
its referent is being changed.

@item -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex recursively changing file ownership
Recursively change ownership of directories and their contents.

@end table


@node chgrp invocation
@section @command{chgrp}: Change group ownership

@pindex chgrp
@cindex group ownership, changing
@cindex changing group ownership

@command{chgrp} changes the group ownership of each given @var{file}
to @var{group} (which can be either a group name or a numeric group id)
or to the group of an existing reference file.  Synopsis:

@example
chgrp [@var{option}]@dots{} @{@var{group} | --reference=@var{ref_file}@} @var{file}@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --changes
@opindex -c
@opindex --changes
@cindex changed files, verbosely describing
Verbosely describe the action for each @var{file} whose group actually
changes.

@item -f
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -f
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
@cindex error messages, omitting
Do not print error messages about files whose group cannot be
changed.

@item --dereference
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, changing owner
@findex lchown
Do not act on symbolic links themselves but rather on what they point to.

@item -h
@itemx --no-dereference
@opindex -h
@opindex --no-dereference
@cindex symbolic links, changing group
@findex lchown
Act on symbolic links themselves instead of what they point to.
This is the default.
This mode relies on the @code{lchown} system call.
On systems that do not provide the @code{lchown} system call,
@command{chgrp} fails when a file specified on the command line
is a symbolic link.
By default, no diagnostic is issued for symbolic links encountered
during a recursive traversal, but see @option{--verbose}.

@item --reference=@var{ref_file}
@opindex --reference
Change the group of each @var{file} to be the same as that of
@var{ref_file}.  If @var{ref_file} is a symbolic link, do not use the
group of the symbolic link, but rather that of the file it refers to.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Output a diagnostic for every file processed.
If a symbolic link is encountered during a recursive traversal
on a system without the @code{lchown} system call, and @option{--no-dereference}
is in effect, then issue a diagnostic saying neither the symbolic link nor
its referent is being changed.

@item -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex recursively changing group ownership
Recursively change the group ownership of directories and their contents.

@end table


@node chmod invocation
@section @command{chmod}: Change access permissions

@pindex chmod
@cindex changing access permissions
@cindex access permissions, changing
@cindex permissions, changing access

@command{chmod} changes the access permissions of the named files.  Synopsis:

@example
chmod [@var{option}]@dots{} @{@var{mode} | --reference=@var{ref_file}@} @var{file}@dots{}
@end example

@cindex symbolic links, permissions of
@command{chmod} never changes the permissions of symbolic links, since
the @command{chmod} system call cannot change their permissions.
This is not a problem since the permissions of symbolic links are
never used.  However, for each symbolic link listed on the command
line, @command{chmod} changes the permissions of the pointed-to file.
In contrast, @command{chmod} ignores symbolic links encountered during
recursive directory traversals.

If used, @var{mode} specifies the new permissions.
For details, see the section on @ref{File permissions}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -c
@itemx --changes
@opindex -c
@opindex --changes
Verbosely describe the action for each @var{file} whose permissions
actually changes.

@item -f
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -f
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
@cindex error messages, omitting
Do not print error messages about files whose permissions cannot be
changed.

@item -v
@itemx --verbose
@opindex -v
@opindex --verbose
Verbosely describe the action or non-action taken for every @var{file}.

@item --reference=@var{ref_file}
@opindex --reference
Change the mode of each @var{file} to be the same as that of @var{ref_file}.
@xref{File permissions}.
If @var{ref_file} is a symbolic link, do not use the mode
of the symbolic link, but rather that of the file it refers to.

@item -R
@itemx --recursive
@opindex -R
@opindex --recursive
@cindex recursively changing access permissions
Recursively change permissions of directories and their contents.

@end table


@node touch invocation
@section @command{touch}: Change file timestamps

@pindex touch
@cindex changing file timestamps
@cindex file timestamps, changing
@cindex timestamps, changing file

@command{touch} changes the access and/or modification times of the
specified files.  Synopsis:

@example
touch [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{file}@dots{}
@end example

On older systems, @command{touch} supports an obsolete syntax, as follows.
If the first @var{file} would be a valid argument to the @option{-t}
option and no timestamp is given with any of the @option{-d}, @option{-r},
or @option{-t} options and the @samp{--} argument is not given, that
argument is interpreted as the time for the other files instead of
as a file name.  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards conformance})
does not allow this; use @option{-t} instead.

@cindex empty files, creating
Any @var{file} that does not exist is created empty.

@cindex permissions, for changing file timestamps
If changing both the access and modification times to the current
time, @command{touch} can change the timestamps for files that the user
running it does not own but has write permission for.  Otherwise, the
user must own the files.

Although @command{touch} provides options for changing two of the times --
the times of last access and modification -- of a file, there is actually
a third one as well: the inode change time.  This is often referred to
as a file's @code{ctime}.
The inode change time represents the time when the file's meta-information
last changed.  One common example of this is when the permissions of a
file change.  Changing the permissions doesn't access the file, so
the atime doesn't change, nor does it modify the file, so the mtime
doesn't change.  Yet, something about the file itself has changed,
and this must be noted somewhere.  This is the job of the ctime field.
This is necessary, so that, for example, a backup program can make a
fresh copy of the file, including the new permissions value.
Another operation that modifies a file's ctime without affecting
the others is renaming.  In any case, it is not possible, in normal
operations, for a user to change the ctime field to a user-specified value.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --time=atime
@itemx --time=access
@itemx --time=use
@opindex -a
@opindex --time
@opindex atime@r{, changing}
@opindex access @r{time, changing}
@opindex use @r{time, changing}
Change the access time only.

@item -c
@itemx --no-create
@opindex -c
@opindex --no-create
Do not create files that do not exist.

@item -d
@itemx --date=time
@opindex -d
@opindex --date
@opindex time
Use @var{time} instead of the current time.  It can contain month names,
time zones, @samp{am} and @samp{pm}, etc.  @xref{Date input formats}.

@item -f
@opindex -f
@cindex BSD @command{touch} compatibility
Ignored; for compatibility with BSD versions of @command{touch}.

@item -m
@itemx --time=mtime
@itemx --time=modify
@opindex -m
@opindex --time
@opindex mtime@r{, changing}
@opindex modify @r{time, changing}
Change the modification time only.

@item -r @var{file}
@itemx --reference=@var{file}
@opindex -r
@opindex --reference
Use the times of the reference @var{file} instead of the current time.

@item -t [[CC]YY]MMDDhhmm[.ss]
Use the argument (optional four-digit or two-digit years, months,
days, hours, minutes, optional seconds) instead of the current time.
If the year is specified with only two digits, then @var{CC}
is 20 for years in the range 0 @dots{} 68, and 19 for years in
69 @dots{} 99.  If no digits of the year are specified,
the argument is interpreted as a date in the current year.

@end table


@node Disk usage
@chapter Disk usage

@cindex disk usage

No disk can hold an infinite amount of data.  These commands report on
how much disk storage is in use or available.  (This has nothing much to
do with how much @emph{main memory}, i.e., RAM, a program is using when
it runs; for that, you want @code{ps} or @code{pstat} or @code{swap}
or some such command.)

@menu
* df invocation::               Report filesystem disk space usage.
* du invocation::               Estimate file space usage.
* stat invocation::             Report file or filesystem status.
* sync invocation::             Synchronize memory and disk.
@end menu


@node df invocation
@section @command{df}: Report filesystem disk space usage

@pindex df
@cindex filesystem disk usage
@cindex disk usage by filesystem

@command{df} reports the amount of disk space used and available on
filesystems.  Synopsis:

@example
df [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

With no arguments, @command{df} reports the space used and available on all
currently mounted filesystems (of all types).  Otherwise, @command{df}
reports on the filesystem containing each argument @var{file}.

Normally the disk space is printed in units of
1024 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
Non-integer quantities are rounded up to the next higher unit.

@cindex disk device file
@cindex device file, disk
If an argument @var{file} is a disk device file containing a mounted
filesystem, @command{df} shows the space available on that filesystem
rather than on the filesystem containing the device node (i.e., the root
filesystem).  @sc{gnu} @command{df} does not attempt to determine the disk usage
on unmounted filesystems, because on most kinds of systems doing so
requires extremely nonportable intimate knowledge of filesystem
structures.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
@cindex automounter filesystems
@cindex ignore filesystems
Include in the listing filesystems that have a size of 0 blocks, which
are omitted by default.  Such filesystems are typically special-purpose
pseudo-filesystems, such as automounter entries.  Also, filesystems of
type ``ignore'' or ``auto'', supported by some operating systems, are
only included if this option is specified.

@item -B @var{size}
@itemx --block-size=@var{size}
@opindex -B
@opindex --block-size
@cindex filesystem sizes
Scale sizes by @var{size} before printing them (@pxref{Block size}).
For example, @option{-BG} prints sizes in units of 1,073,741,824 bytes.

@item -h
@itemx --human-readable
@opindex -h
@opindex --human-readable
@cindex human-readable output
Append a size letter to each size, such as @samp{M} for mebibytes.
Powers of 1024 are used, not 1000; @samp{M} stands for 1,048,576 bytes.
Use the @option{-H} or @option{--si} option if you prefer powers of 1000.

@item -H
@itemx --si
@opindex -H
@opindex --si
@cindex SI output
Append an SI-style abbreviation to each size, such as @samp{MB} for
megabytes.  Powers of 1000 are used, not 1024; @samp{MB} stands for
1,000,000 bytes.  Use the @option{-h} or @option{--human-readable} option if
you prefer powers of 1024.

@item -i
@itemx --inodes
@opindex -i
@opindex --inodes
@cindex inode usage
List inode usage information instead of block usage.  An inode (short
for index node) contains information about a file such as its owner,
permissions, timestamps, and location on the disk.

@item -k
@opindex -k
@cindex kibibytes for filesystem sizes
Print sizes in 1024-byte blocks, overriding the default block size
(@pxref{Block size}).
This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}.

@item -l
@itemx --local
@opindex -l
@opindex --local
@cindex filesystem types, limiting output to certain
Limit the listing to local filesystems.  By default, remote filesystems
are also listed.

@item --no-sync
@opindex --no-sync
@cindex filesystem space, retrieving old data more quickly
Do not invoke the @code{sync} system call before getting any usage data.
This may make @command{df} run significantly faster on systems with many
disks, but on some systems (notably SunOS) the results may be slightly
out of date.  This is the default.

@item -P
@itemx --portability
@opindex -P
@opindex --portability
@cindex one-line output format
@cindex @acronym{POSIX} output format
@cindex portable output format
@cindex output format, portable
Use the @acronym{POSIX} output format.  This is like the default format except
for the following:

@enumerate
@item
The information about each filesystem is always printed on exactly
one line; a mount device is never put on a line by itself.  This means
that if the mount device name is more than 20 characters long (e.g., for
some network mounts), the columns are misaligned.

@item
The labels in the header output line are changed to conform to @acronym{POSIX}.
@end enumerate

@item --sync
@opindex --sync
@cindex filesystem space, retrieving current data more slowly
Invoke the @code{sync} system call before getting any usage data.  On
some systems (notably SunOS), doing this yields more up to date results,
but in general this option makes @command{df} much slower, especially when
there are many or very busy filesystems.

@item -t @var{fstype}
@itemx --type=@var{fstype}
@opindex -t
@opindex --type
@cindex filesystem types, limiting output to certain
Limit the listing to filesystems of type @var{fstype}.  Multiple
filesystem types can be specified by giving multiple @option{-t} options.
By default, nothing is omitted.

@item -T
@itemx --print-type
@opindex -T
@opindex --print-type
@cindex filesystem types, printing
Print each filesystem's type.  The types printed here are the same ones
you can include or exclude with @option{-t} and @option{-x}.  The particular
types printed are whatever is supported by the system.  Here are some of
the common names (this list is certainly not exhaustive):

@table @samp

@item nfs
@cindex NFS filesystem type
An NFS filesystem, i.e., one mounted over a network from another
machine.  This is the one type name which seems to be used uniformly by
all systems.

@item 4.2@r{, }ufs@r{, }efs@dots{}
@cindex Linux filesystem types
@cindex local filesystem types
@opindex 4.2 @r{filesystem type}
@opindex ufs @r{filesystem type}
@opindex efs @r{filesystem type}
A filesystem on a locally-mounted hard disk.  (The system might even
support more than one type here; Linux does.)

@item hsfs@r{, }cdfs
@cindex CD-ROM filesystem type
@cindex High Sierra filesystem
@opindex hsfs @r{filesystem type}
@opindex cdfs @r{filesystem type}
A filesystem on a CD-ROM drive.  HP-UX uses @samp{cdfs}, most other
systems use @samp{hsfs} (@samp{hs} for ``High Sierra'').

@item pcfs
@cindex PC filesystem
@cindex DOS filesystem
@cindex MS-DOS filesystem
@cindex diskette filesystem
@opindex pcfs
An MS-DOS filesystem, usually on a diskette.

@end table

@item -x @var{fstype}
@itemx --exclude-type=@var{fstype}
@opindex -x
@opindex --exclude-type
Limit the listing to filesystems not of type @var{fstype}.
Multiple filesystem types can be eliminated by giving multiple
@option{-x} options.  By default, no filesystem types are omitted.

@item -v
Ignored; for compatibility with System V versions of @command{df}.

@end table


@node du invocation
@section @command{du}: Estimate file space usage

@pindex du
@cindex file space usage
@cindex disk usage for files

@command{du} reports the amount of disk space used by the specified files
and for each subdirectory (of directory arguments).  Synopsis:

@example
du [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

With no arguments, @command{du} reports the disk space for the current
directory.  Normally the disk space is printed in units of
1024 bytes, but this can be overridden (@pxref{Block size}).
Non-integer quantities are rounded up to the next higher unit.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
Show counts for all files, not just directories.

@item -b
@itemx --bytes
@opindex -b
@opindex --bytes
Print sizes in bytes, overriding the default block size (@pxref{Block size}).

@item -B @var{size}
@itemx --block-size=@var{size}
@opindex -B
@opindex --block-size
@cindex file sizes
Scale sizes by @var{size} before printing them (@pxref{Block size}).
For example, @option{-BG} prints sizes in units of 1,073,741,824 bytes.

@item -c
@itemx --total
@opindex -c
@opindex --total
@cindex grand total of disk space
Print a grand total of all arguments after all arguments have
been processed.  This can be used to find out the total disk usage of
a given set of files or directories.

@item -D
@itemx --dereference-args
@opindex -D
@opindex --dereference-args
Dereference symbolic links that are command line arguments.
Does not affect other symbolic links.  This is helpful for finding
out the disk usage of directories, such as @file{/usr/tmp}, which
are often symbolic links.

@item -h
@itemx --human-readable
@opindex -h
@opindex --human-readable
@cindex human-readable output
Append a size letter to each size, such as @samp{M} for mebibytes.
Powers of 1024 are used, not 1000; @samp{M} stands for 1,048,576 bytes.
Use the @option{-H} or @option{--si} option if you prefer powers of 1000.

@item -H
@itemx --si
@opindex -H
@opindex --si
@cindex SI output
Append an SI-style abbreviation to each size, such as @samp{MB} for
megabytes.  Powers of 1000 are used, not 1024; @samp{MB} stands for
1,000,000 bytes.  Use the @option{-h} or @option{--human-readable} option if
you prefer powers of 1024.

@item -k
@opindex -k
@cindex kibibytes for file sizes
Print sizes in 1024-byte blocks, overriding the default block size
(@pxref{Block size}).
This option is equivalent to @option{--block-size=1K}.

@item -l
@itemx --count-links
@opindex -l
@opindex --count-links
@cindex hard links, counting in @command{du}
Count the size of all files, even if they have appeared already (as a
hard link).

@item -L
@itemx --dereference
@opindex -L
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing in @command{du}
Dereference symbolic links (show the disk space used by the file
or directory that the link points to instead of the space used by
the link).

@item --max-depth=@var{DEPTH}
@opindex --max-depth=@var{DEPTH}
@cindex limiting output of @command{du}
Show the total for each directory (and file if --all) that is at
most MAX_DEPTH levels down from the root of the hierarchy.  The root
is at level 0, so @code{du --max-depth=0} is equivalent to @code{du -s}.

@item -s
@itemx --summarize
@opindex -s
@opindex --summarize
Display only a total for each argument.

@item -S
@itemx --separate-dirs
@opindex -S
@opindex --separate-dirs
Report the size of each directory separately, not including the sizes
of subdirectories.

@item -x
@itemx --one-file-system
@opindex -x
@opindex --one-file-system
@cindex one filesystem, restricting @command{du} to
Skip directories that are on different filesystems from the one that
the argument being processed is on.

@item --exclude=@var{PATTERN}
@opindex --exclude=@var{PATTERN}
@cindex excluding files from @command{du}
When recursing, skip subdirectories or files matching @var{PATTERN}.
For example, @code{du --exclude='*.o'} excludes files whose names
end in @samp{.o}.

@item -X @var{FILE}
@itemx --exclude-from=@var{FILE}
@opindex -X @var{FILE}
@opindex --exclude-from=@var{FILE}
@cindex excluding files from @command{du}
Like @option{--exclude}, except take the patterns to exclude from @var{FILE},
one per line.  If @var{FILE} is @samp{-}, take the patterns from standard
input.

@end table

@cindex NFS mounts from BSD to HP-UX
On BSD systems, @command{du} reports sizes that are half the correct
values for files that are NFS-mounted from HP-UX systems.  On HP-UX
systems, it reports sizes that are twice the correct values for
files that are NFS-mounted from BSD systems.  This is due to a flaw
in HP-UX; it also affects the HP-UX @command{du} program.


@node stat invocation
@section @command{stat}: Report file or filesystem status

@pindex stat
@cindex file status
@cindex filesystem status

@command{stat} displays information about the specified file(s).  Synopsis:

@example
stat [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

With no option, @command{stat} reports all information about the given files.
But it also can be used to report the information of the filesystems the
given files are located on. If the files are links, @command{stat} can
also give information about the files the links point to.


@table @samp

@item -f
@itemx --filesystem
@opindex -f
@opindex --filesystem
@cindex filesystems
Report information about the filesystems where the given files are located
instead of information about the files themselves.

@item -L
@itemx --dereference
@opindex -L
@opindex --dereference
@cindex symbolic links, dereferencing in @command{stat}
Change how @command{stat} treats symbolic links.
With this option, @command{stat} acts on the file referenced
by each symbolic link argument.
Without it, @command{stat} acts on any symbolic link argument directly.

@item -t
@itemx --terse
@opindex -t
@opindex --terse
@cindex terse output
Print the information in terse form, suitable for parsing by other programs.

@item -c
@itemx --format
@opindex -c
@opindex --format
@cindex output format
Allow user to specify the output format.

Interpreted sequences for file stat are:
@itemize @bullet
@item %n - File name
@item %N - Quoted File name with dereference if symbolic link
@item %d - Device number in decimal
@item %D - Device number in hex
@item %i - Inode number
@item %a - Access rights in octal
@item %A - Access rights in human readable form
@item %f - raw mode in hex
@item %F - File type
@item %h - Number of hard links
@item %u - User Id of owner
@item %U - User name of owner
@item %g - Group Id of owner
@item %G - Group name of owner
@item %t - Major device type in hex
@item %T - Minor device type in hex
@item %s - Total size, in bytes
@item %b - Number of blocks allocated
@item %o - IO block size
@item %x - Time of last access
@item %X - Time of last access as seconds since Epoch
@item %y - Time of last modification
@item %Y - Time of last modification as seconds since Epoch
@item %z - Time of last change
@item %Z - Time of last change as seconds since Epoch
@end itemize

Interpreted sequences for filesystem stat are:
@itemize @bullet
@item %n - File name
@item %i - File System id in hex
@item %l - Maximum length of filenames
@item %t - Type in hex
@item %T - Type in human readable form
@item %b - Total data blocks in file system
@item %f - Free blocks in file system
@item %a - Free blocks available to non-superuser
@item %s - Optimal transfer block size
@item %c - Total file nodes in file system
@end itemize
@end table


@node sync invocation
@section @command{sync}: Synchronize data on disk with memory

@pindex sync
@cindex synchronize disk and memory

@cindex superblock, writing
@cindex inodes, written buffered
@command{sync} writes any data buffered in memory out to disk.  This can
include (but is not limited to) modified superblocks, modified inodes,
and delayed reads and writes.  This must be implemented by the kernel;
The @command{sync} program does nothing but exercise the @code{sync} system
call.

@cindex crashes and corruption
The kernel keeps data in memory to avoid doing (relatively slow) disk
reads and writes.  This improves performance, but if the computer
crashes, data may be lost or the filesystem corrupted as a
result. @command{sync} ensures everything in memory is written to disk.

Any arguments are ignored, except for a lone @option{--help} or
@option{--version} (@pxref{Common options}).

@node Printing text
@chapter Printing text

@cindex printing text, commands for
@cindex commands for printing text

This section describes commands that display text strings.

@menu
* echo invocation::             Print a line of text.
* printf invocation::           Format and print data.
* yes invocation::              Print a string until interrupted.
@end menu


@node echo invocation
@section @command{echo}: Print a line of text

@pindex echo
@cindex displaying text
@cindex printing text
@cindex text, displaying
@cindex arbitrary text, displaying

@command{echo} writes each given @var{string} to standard output, with a
space between each and a newline after the last one.  Synopsis:

@example
echo [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{string}]@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -n
@opindex -n
Do not output the trailing newline.

@item -e
@opindex -e
@cindex backslash escapes
Enable interpretation of the following backslash-escaped characters in
each @var{string}:

@table @samp
@item \a
alert (bell)
@item \b
backspace
@item \c
suppress trailing newline
@item \f
form feed
@item \n
new line
@item \r
carriage return
@item \t
horizontal tab
@item \v
vertical tab
@item \\
backslash
@item \@var{nnn}
the character whose @acronym{ASCII} code is @var{nnn} (octal); if @var{nnn} is not
a valid octal number, it is printed literally.
@end table

@end table


@node printf invocation
@section @command{printf}: Format and print data

@pindex printf
@command{printf} does formatted printing of text. Synopsis:

@example
printf @var{format} [@var{argument}]@dots{}
@end example

@command{printf} prints the @var{format} string, interpreting @samp{%}
directives and @samp{\} escapes in the same way as the C @command{printf}
function.  The @var{format} argument is re-used as necessary to convert
all of the given @var{argument}s.

@command{printf} has one additional directive, @samp{%b}, which prints its
argument string with @samp{\} escapes interpreted in the same way as in
the @var{format} string.

@kindex \0ooo
@kindex \xhh
@command{printf} interprets @samp{\0ooo} in @var{format} as an octal number
(if @var{ooo} is 0 to 3 octal digits) specifying a character to print,
and @samp{\xhh} as a hexadecimal number (if @var{hh} is 1 to 2 hex
digits) specifying a character to print.

@kindex \uhhhh
@kindex \Uhhhhhhhh
@command{printf} interprets two character syntaxes introduced in ISO C 99:
@samp{\u} for 16-bit Unicode characters, specified as 4 hex digits
@var{hhhh}, and @samp{\U} for 32-bit Unicode characters, specified as 8 hex
digits @var{hhhhhhhh}. @command{printf} outputs the Unicode characters
according to the LC_CTYPE part of the current locale, i.e. depending
on the values of the environment variables @code{LC_ALL}, @code{LC_CTYPE},
@code{LANG}.

The processing of @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} requires a full-featured
@code{iconv} facility. It is activated on systems with glibc 2.2 (or newer),
or when @code{libiconv} is installed prior to this package. Otherwise the
use of @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} will give an error message.

@kindex \c
An additional escape, @samp{\c}, causes @command{printf} to produce no
further output.

The only options are a lone @option{--help} or
@option{--version}.  @xref{Common options}.

The Unicode character syntaxes are useful for writing strings in a locale
independent way. For example, a string containing the Euro currency symbol

@example
$ /usr/local/bin/printf '\u20AC 14.95'
@end example

@noindent
will be output correctly in all locales supporting the Euro symbol
(ISO-8859-15, UTF-8, and others). Similarly, a Chinese string

@example
$ /usr/local/bin/printf '\u4e2d\u6587'
@end example

@noindent
will be output correctly in all Chinese locales (GB2312, BIG5, UTF-8, etc).

Note that in these examples, the full pathname of @command{printf} has been
given, to distinguish it from the GNU @code{bash} builtin function
@command{printf}.

For larger strings, you don't need to look up the hexadecimal code
values of each character one by one. @acronym{ASCII} characters mixed with \u
escape sequences is also known as the JAVA source file encoding. You can
use GNU recode 3.5c (or newer) to convert strings to this encoding. Here
is how to convert a piece of text into a shell script which will output
this text in a locale-independent way:

@smallexample
$ LC_CTYPE=zh_CN.big5 /usr/local/bin/printf \
    '\u4e2d\u6587\n' > sample.txt
$ recode BIG5..JAVA < sample.txt \
    | sed -e "s|^|/usr/local/bin/printf '|" -e "s|$|\\\\n'|" \
    > sample.sh
@end smallexample


@node yes invocation
@section @command{yes}: Print a string until interrupted

@pindex yes
@cindex repeated output of a string

@command{yes} prints the command line arguments, separated by spaces and
followed by a newline, forever until it is killed.  If no arguments are
given, it prints @samp{y} followed by a newline forever until killed.

The only options are a lone @option{--help} or @option{--version}.
@xref{Common options}.


@node Conditions
@chapter Conditions

@cindex conditions
@cindex commands for exit status
@cindex exit status commands

This section describes commands that are primarily useful for their exit
status, rather than their output.  Thus, they are often used as the
condition of shell @code{if} statements, or as the last command in a
pipeline.

@menu
* false invocation::            Do nothing, unsuccessfully.
* true invocation::             Do nothing, successfully.
* test invocation::             Check file types and compare values.
* expr invocation::             Evaluate expressions.
@end menu


@node false invocation
@section @command{false}: Do nothing, unsuccessfully

@pindex false
@cindex do nothing, unsuccessfully
@cindex failure exit status
@cindex exit status of @command{false}

@command{false} does nothing except return an exit status of 1, meaning
@dfn{failure}.  It can be used as a place holder in shell scripts
where an unsuccessful command is needed.

By default, @command{false} honors the @option{--help} and @option{--version}
options.  However, that is contrary to @acronym{POSIX}, so when the environment
variable @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, @command{false} ignores @emph{all}
command line arguments, including @option{--help} and @option{--version}.

This version of @command{false} is implemented as a C program, and is thus
more secure and faster than a shell script implementation, and may safely
be used as a dummy shell for the purpose of disabling accounts.


@node true invocation
@section @command{true}: Do nothing, successfully

@pindex true
@cindex do nothing, successfully
@cindex no-op
@cindex successful exit
@cindex exit status of @command{true}

@command{true} does nothing except return an exit status of 0, meaning
@dfn{success}.  It can be used as a place holder in shell scripts
where a successful command is needed, although the shell built-in
command @code{:} (colon) may do the same thing faster.
In most modern shells, @command{true} is a built-in command, so when
you use @samp{true} in a script, you're probably using the built-in
command, not the one documented here.

By default, @command{true} honors the @option{--help} and @option{--version}
options.  However, that is contrary to @acronym{POSIX}, so when the environment
variable @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, @command{true} ignores @emph{all}
command line arguments, including @option{--help} and @option{--version}.

This version of @command{true} is implemented as a C program, and is thus
more secure and faster than a shell script implementation, and may safely
be used as a dummy shell for the purpose of disabling accounts.

@node test invocation
@section @command{test}: Check file types and compare values

@pindex test
@cindex check file types
@cindex compare values
@cindex expression evaluation

@command{test} returns a status of 0 (true) or 1 (false) depending on the
evaluation of the conditional expression @var{expr}.  Each part of the
expression must be a separate argument.

@command{test} has file status checks, string operators, and numeric
comparison operators.

@cindex conflicts with shell built-ins
@cindex built-in shell commands, conflicts with
Because most shells have a built-in command by the same name, using the
unadorned command name in a script or interactively may get you
different functionality than that described here.

Besides the options below, @command{test} accepts a lone @option{--help} or
@option{--version}.  @xref{Common options}.  A single non-option argument
is also allowed: @command{test} returns true if the argument is not null.

@menu
* File type tests::             -[bcdfhLpSt]
* Access permission tests::     -[gkruwxOG]
* File characteristic tests::   -e -s -nt -ot -ef
* String tests::                -z -n = !=
* Numeric tests::               -eq -ne -lt -le -gt -ge
* Connectives for test::        ! -a -o
@end menu


@node File type tests
@subsection File type tests

@cindex file type tests

These options test for particular types of files.  (Everything's a file,
but not all files are the same!)

@table @samp

@item -b @var{file}
@opindex -b
@cindex block special check
True if @var{file} exists and is a block special device.

@item -c @var{file}
@opindex -c
@cindex character special check
True if @var{file} exists and is a character special device.

@item -d @var{file}
@opindex -d
@cindex directory check
True if @var{file} exists and is a directory.

@item -f @var{file}
@opindex -f
@cindex regular file check
True if @var{file} exists and is a regular file.

@item -h @var{file}
@itemx -L @var{file}
@opindex -L
@opindex -h
@cindex symbolic link check
True if @var{file} exists and is a symbolic link.

@item -p @var{file}
@opindex -p
@cindex named pipe check
True if @var{file} exists and is a named pipe.

@item -S @var{file}
@opindex -S
@cindex socket check
True if @var{file} exists and is a socket.

@item -t [@var{fd}]
@opindex -t
@cindex terminal check
True if @var{fd} is opened on a terminal.  If @var{fd} is omitted, it
defaults to 1 (standard output).

@end table


@node Access permission tests
@subsection Access permission tests

@cindex access permission tests
@cindex permission tests

These options test for particular access permissions.

@table @samp

@item -g @var{file}
@opindex -g
@cindex set-group-id check
True if @var{file} exists and has its set-group-id bit set.

@item -k @var{file}
@opindex -k
@cindex sticky bit check
True if @var{file} has its @dfn{sticky} bit set.

@item -r @var{file}
@opindex -r
@cindex readable file check
True if @var{file} exists and is readable.

@item -u @var{file}
@opindex -u
@cindex set-user-id check
True if @var{file} exists and has its set-user-id bit set.

@item -w @var{file}
@opindex -w
@cindex writable file check
True if @var{file} exists and is writable.

@item -x @var{file}
@opindex -x
@cindex executable file check
True if @var{file} exists and is executable.

@item -O @var{file}
@opindex -O
@cindex owned by effective uid check
True if @var{file} exists and is owned by the current effective user id.

@item -G @var{file}
@opindex -G
@cindex owned by effective gid check
True if @var{file} exists and is owned by the current effective group id.

@end table

@node File characteristic tests
@subsection File characteristic tests

@cindex file characteristic tests

These options test other file characteristics.

@table @samp

@item -e @var{file}
@opindex -e
@cindex existence-of-file check
True if @var{file} exists.

@item -s @var{file}
@opindex -s
@cindex nonempty file check
True if @var{file} exists and has a size greater than zero.

@item @var{file1} -nt @var{file2}
@opindex -nt
@cindex newer-than file check
True if @var{file1} is newer (according to modification date) than
@var{file2}, or if @var{file1} exists and @var{file2} does not.

@item @var{file1} -ot @var{file2}
@opindex -ot
@cindex older-than file check
True if @var{file1} is older (according to modification date) than
@var{file2}, or if @var{file2} exists and @var{file1} does not.

@item @var{file1} -ef @var{file2}
@opindex -ef
@cindex same file check
@cindex hard link check
True if @var{file1} and @var{file2} have the same device and inode
numbers, i.e., if they are hard links to each other.

@end table


@node String tests
@subsection String tests

@cindex string tests

These options test string characteristics.  Strings are not quoted for
@command{test}, though you may need to quote them to protect characters
with special meaning to the shell, e.g., spaces.

@table @samp

@item -z @var{string}
@opindex -z
@cindex zero-length string check
True if the length of @var{string} is zero.

@item -n @var{string}
@itemx @var{string}
@opindex -n
@cindex nonzero-length string check
True if the length of @var{string} is nonzero.

@item @var{string1} = @var{string2}
@opindex =
@cindex equal string check
True if the strings are equal.

@item @var{string1} != @var{string2}
@opindex !=
@cindex not-equal string check
True if the strings are not equal.

@end table


@node Numeric tests
@subsection Numeric tests

@cindex numeric tests
@cindex arithmetic tests

Numeric relationals.  The arguments must be entirely numeric (possibly
negative), or the special expression @w{@code{-l @var{string}}}, which
evaluates to the length of @var{string}.

@table @samp

@item @var{arg1} -eq @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -ne @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -lt @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -le @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -gt @var{arg2}
@itemx @var{arg1} -ge @var{arg2}
@opindex -eq
@opindex -ne
@opindex -lt
@opindex -le
@opindex -gt
@opindex -ge
These arithmetic binary operators return true if @var{arg1} is equal,
not-equal, less-than, less-than-or-equal, greater-than, or
greater-than-or-equal than @var{arg2}, respectively.

@end table

For example:

@example
test -1 -gt -2 && echo yes
@result{} yes
test -l abc -gt 1 && echo yes
@result{} yes
test 0x100 -eq 1
@error{} test: integer expression expected before -eq
@end example


@node Connectives for test
@subsection Connectives for @command{test}

@cindex logical connectives
@cindex connectives, logical

The usual logical connectives.

@table @samp

@item ! @var{expr}
@opindex !
True if @var{expr} is false.

@item @var{expr1} -a @var{expr2}
@opindex -a
@cindex logical and operator
@cindex and operator
True if both @var{expr1} and @var{expr2} are true.

@item @var{expr1} -o @var{expr2}
@opindex -o
@cindex logical or operator
@cindex or operator
True if either @var{expr1} or @var{expr2} is true.

@end table


@node expr invocation
@section @command{expr}: Evaluate expressions

@pindex expr
@cindex expression evaluation
@cindex evaluation of expressions

@command{expr} evaluates an expression and writes the result on standard
output.  Each token of the expression must be a separate argument.

Operands are either numbers or strings.  @command{expr} converts
anything appearing in an operand position to an integer or a string
depending on the operation being applied to it.

Strings are not quoted for @command{expr} itself, though you may need to
quote them to protect characters with special meaning to the shell,
e.g., spaces.

@cindex parentheses for grouping
Operators may be given as infix symbols or prefix keywords.  Parentheses
may be used for grouping in the usual manner (you must quote parentheses
to avoid the shell evaluating them, however).

@cindex exit status of @command{expr}
Exit status:

@display
0 if the expression is neither null nor 0,
1 if the expression is null or 0,
2 for invalid expressions.
@end display

@menu
* String expressions::          + : match substr index length
* Numeric expressions::         + - * / %
* Relations for expr::          | & < <= = == != >= >
* Examples of expr::            Examples.
@end menu


@node String expressions
@subsection String expressions

@cindex string expressions
@cindex expressions, string

@command{expr} supports pattern matching and other string operators.  These
have lower precedence than both the numeric and relational operators (in
the next sections).

@table @samp

@item @var{string} : @var{regex}
@cindex pattern matching
@cindex regular expression matching
@cindex matching patterns
Perform pattern matching.  The arguments are converted to strings and the
second is considered to be a (basic, a la GNU @code{grep}) regular
expression, with a @code{^} implicitly prepended.  The first argument is
then matched against this regular expression.

If the match succeeds and @var{regex} uses @samp{\(} and @samp{\)}, the
@code{:} expression returns the part of @var{string} that matched the
subexpression; otherwise, it returns the number of characters matched.

If the match fails, the @code{:} operator returns the null string if
@samp{\(} and @samp{\)} are used in @var{regex}, otherwise 0.

@kindex \( @r{regexp operator}
Only the first @samp{\( @dots{} \)} pair is relevant to the return
value; additional pairs are meaningful only for grouping the regular
expression operators.

@kindex \+ @r{regexp operator}
@kindex \? @r{regexp operator}
@kindex \| @r{regexp operator}
In the regular expression, @code{\+}, @code{\?}, and @code{\|} are
operators which respectively match one or more, zero or one, or separate
alternatives.  SunOS and other @command{expr}'s treat these as regular
characters.  (@acronym{POSIX} allows either behavior.)
@xref{Top, , Regular Expression Library, regex, Regex}, for details of
regular expression syntax.  Some examples are in @ref{Examples of expr}.

@item match @var{string} @var{regex}
@findex match
An alternative way to do pattern matching.  This is the same as
@w{@samp{@var{string} : @var{regex}}}.

@item substr @var{string} @var{position} @var{length}
@findex substr
Returns the substring of @var{string} beginning at @var{position}
with length at most @var{length}.  If either @var{position} or
@var{length} is negative, zero, or non-numeric, returns the null string.

@item index @var{string} @var{charset}
@findex index
Returns the first position in @var{string} where the first character in
@var{charset} was found.  If no character in @var{charset} is found in
@var{string}, return 0.

@item length @var{string}
@findex length
Returns the length of @var{string}.

@item + @var{token}
@kindex +
Interpret @var{token} as a string, even if it is a keyword like @var{match}
or an operator like @code{/}.
This makes it possible to test @code{expr length + "$x"} or
@code{expr + "$x" : '.*/\(.\)'} and have it do the right thing even if
the value of @var{$x} happens to be (for example) @code{/} or @code{index}.
This operator is a GNU extension.  Portable shell scripts should use
@code{@w{" $token"} : @w{' \(.*\)'}} instead of @code{+ "$token"}.

@end table

To make @command{expr} interpret keywords as strings, you must use the
@code{quote} operator.


@node Numeric expressions
@subsection Numeric expressions

@cindex numeric expressions
@cindex expressions, numeric

@command{expr} supports the usual numeric operators, in order of increasing
precedence.  The string operators (previous section) have lower precedence,
the connectives (next section) have higher.

@table @samp

@item + -
@kindex +
@kindex -
@cindex addition
@cindex subtraction
Addition and subtraction.  Both arguments are converted to numbers;
an error occurs if this cannot be done.

@item * / %
@kindex *
@kindex /
@kindex %
@cindex multiplication
@cindex division
@cindex remainder
Multiplication, division, remainder.  Both arguments are converted to
numbers; an error occurs if this cannot be done.

@end table


@node Relations for expr
@subsection Relations for @command{expr}

@cindex connectives, logical
@cindex logical connectives
@cindex relations, numeric or string

@command{expr} supports the usual logical connectives and relations.  These
are higher precedence than either the string or numeric operators
(previous sections).  Here is the list, lowest-precedence operator first.

@table @samp

@item |
@kindex |
@cindex logical or operator
@cindex or operator
Returns its first argument if that is neither null nor 0, otherwise its
second argument.

@item &
@kindex &
@cindex logical and operator
@cindex and operator
Return its first argument if neither argument is null or 0, otherwise
0.

@item < <= = == != >= >
@kindex <
@kindex <=
@kindex =
@kindex ==
@kindex >
@kindex >=
@cindex comparison operators
@vindex LC_COLLATE
Compare the arguments and return 1 if the relation is true, 0 otherwise.
@code{==} is a synonym for @code{=}.  @command{expr} first tries to convert
both arguments to numbers and do a numeric comparison; if either
conversion fails, it does a lexicographic comparison using the character
collating sequence specified by the @env{LC_COLLATE} locale.

@end table


@node Examples of expr
@subsection Examples of using @command{expr}

@cindex examples of @command{expr}
Here are a few examples, including quoting for shell metacharacters.

To add 1 to the shell variable @code{foo}, in Bourne-compatible shells:
@example
foo=`expr $foo + 1`
@end example

To print the non-directory part of the file name stored in
@code{$fname}, which need not contain a @code{/}.
@example
expr $fname : '.*/\(.*\)' '|' $fname
@end example

An example showing that @code{\+} is an operator:
@example
expr aaa : 'a\+'
@result{} 3
@end example

@example
expr abc : 'a\(.\)c'
@result{} b
expr index abcdef cz
@result{} 3
expr index index a
@error{} expr: syntax error
expr index quote index a
@result{} 0
@end example


@node Redirection
@chapter Redirection

@cindex redirection
@cindex commands for redirection

Unix shells commonly provide several forms of @dfn{redirection}---ways
to change the input source or output destination of a command.  But one
useful redirection is performed by a separate command, not by the shell;
it's described here.

@menu
* tee invocation::              Redirect output to multiple files.
@end menu


@node tee invocation
@section @command{tee}: Redirect output to multiple files

@pindex tee
@cindex pipe fitting
@cindex destinations, multiple output
@cindex read from stdin and write to stdout and files

The @command{tee} command copies standard input to standard output and also
to any files given as arguments.  This is useful when you want not only
to send some data down a pipe, but also to save a copy.  Synopsis:

@example
tee [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{file}]@dots{}
@end example

If a file being written to does not already exist, it is created.  If a
file being written to already exists, the data it previously contained
is overwritten unless the @code{-a} option is used.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -a
@itemx --append
@opindex -a
@opindex --append
Append standard input to the given files rather than overwriting
them.

@item -i
@itemx --ignore-interrupts
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-interrupts
Ignore interrupt signals.

@end table


@node File name manipulation
@chapter File name manipulation

@cindex file name manipulation
@cindex manipulation of file names
@cindex commands for file name manipulation

This section describes commands that manipulate file names.

@menu
* basename invocation::         Strip directory and suffix from a file name.
* dirname invocation::          Strip non-directory suffix from a file name.
* pathchk invocation::          Check file name portability.
@end menu


@node basename invocation
@section @code{basename}: Strip directory and suffix from a file name

@pindex basename
@cindex strip directory and suffix from file names
@cindex directory, stripping from file names
@cindex suffix, stripping from file names
@cindex file names, stripping directory and suffix
@cindex leading directory components, stripping

@code{basename} removes any leading directory components from
@var{name}.  Synopsis:

@example
basename @var{name} [@var{suffix}]
@end example

If @var{suffix} is specified and is identical to the end of @var{name},
it is removed from @var{name} as well.  @code{basename} prints the
result on standard output.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.


@node dirname invocation
@section @command{dirname}: Strip non-directory suffix from a file name

@pindex dirname
@cindex directory components, printing
@cindex stripping non-directory suffix
@cindex non-directory suffix, stripping

@command{dirname} prints all but the final slash-delimited component of
a string (presumably a filename).  Synopsis:

@example
dirname @var{name}
@end example

If @var{name} is a single component, @command{dirname} prints @samp{.}
(meaning the current directory).

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.


@node pathchk invocation
@section @command{pathchk}: Check file name portability

@pindex pathchk
@cindex file names, checking validity and portability
@cindex valid file names, checking for
@cindex portable file names, checking for

@command{pathchk} checks portability of filenames.  Synopsis:

@example
pathchk [@var{option}]@dots{} @var{name}@dots{}
@end example

For each @var{name}, @command{pathchk} prints a message if any of
these conditions is true:
@enumerate
@item
one of the existing directories in @var{name} does not have search
(execute) permission,
@item
the length of @var{name} is larger than its filesystem's maximum
file name length,
@item
the length of one component of @var{name}, corresponding to an
existing directory name, is larger than its filesystem's maximum
length for a file name component.
@end enumerate

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -p
@itemx --portability
@opindex -p
@opindex --portability
Instead of performing length checks on the underlying filesystem,
test the length of each file name and its components against the
@acronym{POSIX} minimum limits for portability.  Also check that the file
name contains no characters not in the portable file name character set.

@end table

@cindex exit status of @command{pathchk}
Exit status:

@display
0 if all specified file names passed all of the tests,
1 otherwise.
@end display


@node Working context
@chapter Working context

@cindex working context
@cindex commands for printing the working context

This section describes commands that display or alter the context in
which you are working: the current directory, the terminal settings, and
so forth.  See also the user-related commands in the next section.

@menu
* pwd invocation::              Print working directory.
* stty invocation::             Print or change terminal characteristics.
* printenv invocation::         Print environment variables.
* tty invocation::              Print file name of terminal on standard input.
@end menu


@node pwd invocation
@section @command{pwd}: Print working directory

@pindex pwd
@cindex print name of current directory
@cindex current working directory, printing
@cindex working directory, printing

@cindex symbolic links and @command{pwd}
@command{pwd} prints the fully resolved name of the current directory.
That is, all components of the printed name will be actual directory
names---none will be symbolic links.

@cindex conflicts with shell built-ins
@cindex built-in shell commands, conflicts with
Because most shells have a built-in command by the same name, using the
unadorned command name in a script or interactively may get you
different functionality than that described here.

The only options are a lone @option{--help} or
@option{--version}.  @xref{Common options}.


@node stty invocation
@section @command{stty}: Print or change terminal characteristics

@pindex stty
@cindex change or print terminal settings
@cindex terminal settings
@cindex line settings of terminal

@command{stty} prints or changes terminal characteristics, such as baud rate.
Synopses:

@example
stty [@var{option}] [@var{setting}]@dots{}
stty [@var{option}]
@end example

If given no line settings, @command{stty} prints the baud rate, line
discipline number (on systems that support it), and line settings
that have been changed from the values set by @samp{stty sane}.
By default, mode reading and setting are performed on the tty line
connected to standard input, although this can be modified by the
@option{--file} option.

@command{stty} accepts many non-option arguments that change aspects of
the terminal line operation, as described below.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
Print all current settings in human-readable form.  This option may not
be used in combination with any line settings.

@item -F @var{device}
@itemx --file=@var{device}
@opindex -F
@opindex --file
Set the line opened by the filename specified in @var{device} instead of
the tty line connected to standard input.  This option is necessary
because opening a @acronym{POSIX} tty requires use of the @code{O_NONDELAY} flag to
prevent a @acronym{POSIX} tty from blocking until the carrier detect line is high if
the @code{clocal} flag is not set.  Hence, it is not always possible
to allow the shell to open the device in the traditional manner.

@item -g
@itemx --save
@opindex -g
@opindex --save
@cindex machine-readable @command{stty} output
Print all current settings in a form that can be used as an argument to
another @command{stty} command to restore the current settings.  This option
may not be used in combination with any line settings.

@end table

Many settings can be turned off by preceding them with a @samp{-}.
Such arguments are marked below with ``May be negated'' in their
description.  The descriptions themselves refer to the positive
case, that is, when @emph{not} negated (unless stated otherwise,
of course).

Some settings are not available on all @acronym{POSIX} systems, since they use
extensions.  Such arguments are marked below with ``Non-@acronym{POSIX}'' in their
description.  On non-@acronym{POSIX} systems, those or other settings also may not
be available, but it's not feasible to document all the variations: just
try it and see.

@menu
* Control::                     Control settings
* Input::                       Input settings
* Output::                      Output settings
* Local::                       Local settings
* Combination::                 Combination settings
* Characters::                  Special characters
* Special::                     Special settings
@end menu


@node Control
@subsection Control settings

@cindex control settings
Control settings:

@table @samp
@item parenb
@opindex parenb
@cindex two-way parity
Generate parity bit in output and expect parity bit in input.
May be negated.

@item parodd
@opindex parodd
@cindex odd parity
@cindex even parity
Set odd parity (even if negated).  May be negated.

@item cs5
@itemx cs6
@itemx cs7
@itemx cs8
@opindex cs@var{n}
@cindex character size
@cindex eight-bit characters
Set character size to 5, 6, 7, or 8 bits.

@item hup
@itemx hupcl
@opindex hup[cl]
Send a hangup signal when the last process closes the tty.  May be
negated.

@item cstopb
@opindex cstopb
@cindex stop bits
Use two stop bits per character (one if negated).  May be negated.

@item cread
@opindex cread
Allow input to be received.  May be negated.

@item clocal
@opindex clocal
@cindex modem control
Disable modem control signals.  May be negated.

@item crtscts
@opindex crtscts
@cindex hardware flow control
@cindex flow control, hardware
@cindex RTS/CTS flow control
Enable RTS/CTS flow control.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.
@end table


@node Input
@subsection Input settings

@cindex input settings

@table @samp
@item ignbrk
@opindex ignbrk
@cindex breaks, ignoring
Ignore break characters.  May be negated.

@item brkint
@opindex brkint
@cindex breaks, cause interrupts
Make breaks cause an interrupt signal.  May be negated.

@item ignpar
@opindex ignpar
@cindex parity, ignoring
Ignore characters with parity errors.  May be negated.

@item parmrk
@opindex parmrk
@cindex parity errors, marking
Mark parity errors (with a 255-0-character sequence).  May be negated.

@item inpck
@opindex inpck
Enable input parity checking.  May be negated.

@item istrip
@opindex istrip
@cindex eight-bit input
Clear high (8th) bit of input characters.  May be negated.

@item inlcr
@opindex inlcr
@cindex newline, translating to return
Translate newline to carriage return.  May be negated.

@item igncr
@opindex igncr
@cindex return, ignoring
Ignore carriage return.  May be negated.

@item icrnl
@opindex icrnl
@cindex return, translating to newline
Translate carriage return to newline.  May be negated.

@item ixon
@opindex ixon
@kindex C-s/C-q flow control
@cindex XON/XOFF flow control
Enable XON/XOFF flow control (that is, @kbd{CTRL-S}/@kbd{CTRL-Q}).  May
be negated.

@item ixoff
@itemx tandem
@opindex ixoff
@opindex tandem
@cindex software flow control
@cindex flow control, software
Enable sending of @code{stop} character when the system input buffer
is almost full, and @code{start} character when it becomes almost
empty again.  May be negated.

@item iuclc
@opindex iuclc
@cindex uppercase, translating to lowercase
Translate uppercase characters to lowercase.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be
negated.

@item ixany
@opindex ixany
Allow any character to restart output (only the start character
if negated).  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item imaxbel
@opindex imaxbel
@cindex beeping at input buffer full
Enable beeping and not flushing input buffer if a character arrives
when the input buffer is full.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.
@end table


@node Output
@subsection Output settings

@cindex output settings
These arguments specify output-related operations.

@table @samp
@item opost
@opindex opost
Postprocess output.  May be negated.

@item olcuc
@opindex olcuc
@cindex lowercase, translating to output
Translate lowercase characters to uppercase.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be
negated.

@item ocrnl
@opindex ocrnl
@cindex return, translating to newline
Translate carriage return to newline.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item onlcr
@opindex onlcr
@cindex newline, translating to crlf
Translate newline to carriage return-newline.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be
negated.

@item onocr
@opindex onocr
Do not print carriage returns in the first column.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.

@item onlret
@opindex onlret
Newline performs a carriage return.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item ofill
@opindex ofill
@cindex pad instead of timing for delaying
Use fill (padding) characters instead of timing for delays.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.

@item ofdel
@opindex ofdel
@cindex pad character
Use delete characters for fill instead of null characters.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.

@item nl1
@itemx nl0
@opindex nl@var{n}
Newline delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item cr3
@itemx cr2
@itemx cr1
@itemx cr0
@opindex cr@var{n}
Carriage return delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item tab3
@itemx tab2
@itemx tab1
@itemx tab0
@opindex tab@var{n}
Horizontal tab delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item bs1
@itemx bs0
@opindex bs@var{n}
Backspace delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item vt1
@itemx vt0
@opindex vt@var{n}
Vertical tab delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item ff1
@itemx ff0
@opindex ff@var{n}
Form feed delay style.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
@end table


@node Local
@subsection Local settings

@cindex local settings

@table @samp
@item isig
@opindex isig
Enable @code{interrupt}, @code{quit}, and @code{suspend} special
characters.  May be negated.

@item icanon
@opindex icanon
Enable @code{erase}, @code{kill}, @code{werase}, and @code{rprnt}
special characters.  May be negated.

@item iexten
@opindex iexten
Enable non-@acronym{POSIX} special characters.  May be negated.

@item echo
@opindex echo
Echo input characters.  May be negated.

@item echoe
@itemx crterase
@opindex echoe
@opindex crterase
Echo @code{erase} characters as backspace-space-backspace.  May be
negated.

@item echok
@opindex echok
@cindex newline echoing after @code{kill}
Echo a newline after a @code{kill} character.  May be negated.

@item echonl
@opindex echonl
@cindex newline, echoing
Echo newline even if not echoing other characters.  May be negated.

@item noflsh
@opindex noflsh
@cindex flushing, disabling
Disable flushing after @code{interrupt} and @code{quit} special
characters.  May be negated.

@item xcase
@opindex xcase
@cindex case translation
Enable input and output of uppercase characters by preceding their
lowercase equivalents with @samp{\}, when @code{icanon} is set.
Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item tostop
@opindex tostop
@cindex background jobs, stopping at terminal write
Stop background jobs that try to write to the terminal.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.

@item echoprt
@itemx prterase
@opindex echoprt
@opindex prterase
Echo erased characters backward, between @samp{\} and @samp{/}.
Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item echoctl
@itemx ctlecho
@opindex echoctl
@opindex ctlecho
@cindex control characters, using @samp{^@var{c}}
@cindex hat notation for control characters
Echo control characters in hat notation (@samp{^@var{c}}) instead
of literally.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item echoke
@itemx crtkill
@opindex echoke
@opindex crtkill
Echo the @code{kill} special character by erasing each character on
the line as indicated by the @code{echoprt} and @code{echoe} settings,
instead of by the @code{echoctl} and @code{echok} settings.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
May be negated.
@end table


@node Combination
@subsection Combination settings

@cindex combination settings
Combination settings:

@table @samp
@item evenp
@opindex evenp
@itemx parity
@opindex parity
Same as @code{parenb -parodd cs7}.  May be negated.  If negated, same
as @code{-parenb cs8}.

@item oddp
@opindex oddp
Same as @code{parenb parodd cs7}.  May be negated.  If negated, same
as @code{-parenb cs8}.

@item nl
@opindex nl
Same as @code{-icrnl -onlcr}.  May be negated.  If negated, same as
@code{icrnl -inlcr -igncr onlcr -ocrnl -onlret}.

@item ek
@opindex ek
Reset the @code{erase} and @code{kill} special characters to their default
values.

@item sane
@opindex sane
Same as:
@c This is too long to write inline.
@example
cread -ignbrk brkint -inlcr -igncr icrnl -ixoff
-iuclc -ixany imaxbel opost -olcuc -ocrnl onlcr
-onocr -onlret -ofill -ofdel nl0 cr0 tab0 bs0 vt0
ff0 isig icanon iexten echo echoe echok -echonl
-noflsh -xcase -tostop -echoprt echoctl echoke
@end example
@noindent and also sets all special characters to their default values.

@item cooked
@opindex cooked
Same as @code{brkint ignpar istrip icrnl ixon opost isig icanon}, plus
sets the @code{eof} and @code{eol} characters to their default values
if they are the same as the @code{min} and @code{time} characters.
May be negated.  If negated, same as @code{raw}.

@item raw
@opindex raw
Same as:
@example
-ignbrk -brkint -ignpar -parmrk -inpck -istrip
-inlcr -igncr -icrnl -ixon -ixoff -iuclc -ixany
-imaxbel -opost -isig -icanon -xcase min 1 time 0
@end example
@noindent May be negated.  If negated, same as @code{cooked}.

@item cbreak
@opindex cbreak
Same as @code{-icanon}.  May be negated.  If negated, same as
@code{icanon}.

@item pass8
@opindex pass8
@cindex eight-bit characters
Same as @code{-parenb -istrip cs8}.  May be negated.  If negated,
same as @code{parenb istrip cs7}.

@item litout
@opindex litout
Same as @code{-parenb -istrip -opost cs8}.  May be negated.
If negated, same as @code{parenb istrip opost cs7}.

@item decctlq
@opindex decctlq
Same as @code{-ixany}.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item tabs
@opindex tabs
Same as @code{tab0}.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.  If negated, same
as @code{tab3}.

@item lcase
@itemx LCASE
@opindex lcase
@opindex LCASE
Same as @code{xcase iuclc olcuc}.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.  May be negated.

@item crt
@opindex crt
Same as @code{echoe echoctl echoke}.

@item dec
@opindex dec
Same as @code{echoe echoctl echoke -ixany intr ^C erase ^? kill C-u}.
@end table


@node Characters
@subsection Special characters

@cindex special characters
@cindex characters, special

The special characters' default values vary from system to system.
They are set with the syntax @samp{name value}, where the names are
listed below and the value can be given either literally, in hat
notation (@samp{^@var{c}}), or as an integer which may start with
@samp{0x} to indicate hexadecimal, @samp{0} to indicate octal, or
any other digit to indicate decimal.

@cindex disabling special characters
@kindex u@r{, and disabling special characters}
For GNU stty, giving a value of @code{^-} or @code{undef} disables that
special character.  (This is incompatible with Ultrix @command{stty},
which uses  a value of @samp{u} to disable a special character.  GNU
@command{stty} treats a value @samp{u} like any other, namely to set that
special character to @key{U}.)

@table @samp

@item intr
@opindex intr
Send an interrupt signal.

@item quit
@opindex quit
Send a quit signal.

@item erase
@opindex erase
Erase the last character typed.

@item kill
@opindex kill
Erase the current line.

@item eof
@opindex eof
Send an end of file (terminate the input).

@item eol
@opindex eol
End the line.

@item eol2
@opindex eol2
Alternate character to end the line.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item swtch
@opindex swtch
Switch to a different shell layer.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item start
@opindex start
Restart the output after stopping it.

@item stop
@opindex stop
Stop the output.

@item susp
@opindex susp
Send a terminal stop signal.

@item dsusp
@opindex dsusp
Send a terminal stop signal after flushing the input.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item rprnt
@opindex rprnt
Redraw the current line.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item werase
@opindex werase
Erase the last word typed.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item lnext
@opindex lnext
Enter the next character typed literally, even if it is a special
character.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.
@end table


@node Special
@subsection Special settings

@cindex special settings

@table @samp
@item min @var{n}
@opindex min
Set the minimum number of characters that will satisfy a read until
the time value has expired, when @code{-icanon} is set.

@item time @var{n}
@opindex time
Set the number of tenths of a second before reads time out if the minimum
number of characters have not been read, when @code{-icanon} is set.

@item ispeed @var{n}
@opindex ispeed
Set the input speed to @var{n}.

@item ospeed @var{n}
@opindex ospeed
Set the output speed to @var{n}.

@item rows @var{n}
@opindex rows
Tell the tty kernel driver that the terminal has @var{n} rows.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item cols @var{n}
@itemx columns @var{n}
@opindex cols
@opindex columns
Tell the kernel that the terminal has @var{n} columns.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item size
@opindex size
@vindex LINES
@vindex COLUMNS
Print the number of rows and columns that the kernel thinks the
terminal has.  (Systems that don't support rows and columns in the kernel
typically use the environment variables @env{LINES} and @env{COLUMNS}
instead; however, GNU @command{stty} does not know anything about them.)
Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item line @var{n}
@opindex line
Use line discipline @var{n}.  Non-@acronym{POSIX}.

@item speed
@opindex speed
Print the terminal speed.

@item @var{n}
@cindex baud rate, setting
@c FIXME: Is this still true that the baud rate can't be set
@c higher than 38400?
Set the input and output speeds to @var{n}.  @var{n} can be one
of: 0 50 75 110 134 134.5 150 200 300 600 1200 1800 2400 4800 9600
19200 38400 @code{exta} @code{extb}.  @code{exta} is the same as
19200; @code{extb} is the same as 38400.  0 hangs up the line if
@code{-clocal} is set.
@end table


@node printenv invocation
@section @command{printenv}: Print all or some environment variables

@pindex printenv
@cindex printing all or some environment variables
@cindex environment variables, printing

@command{printenv} prints environment variable values.  Synopsis:

@example
printenv [@var{option}] [@var{variable}]@dots{}
@end example

If no @var{variable}s are specified, @command{printenv} prints the value of
every environment variable.  Otherwise, it prints the value of each
@var{variable} that is set, and nothing for those that are not set.

The only options are a lone @option{--help} or @option{--version}.
@xref{Common options}.

@cindex exit status of @command{printenv}
Exit status:

@display
0 if all variables specified were found
1 if at least one specified variable was not found
2 if a write error occurred
@end display


@node tty invocation
@section @command{tty}: Print file name of terminal on standard input

@pindex tty
@cindex print terminal file name
@cindex terminal file name, printing

@command{tty} prints the file name of the terminal connected to its standard
input.  It prints @samp{not a tty} if standard input is not a terminal.
Synopsis:

@example
tty [@var{option}]@dots{}
@end example

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -s
@itemx --silent
@itemx --quiet
@opindex -s
@opindex --silent
@opindex --quiet
Print nothing; only return an exit status.

@end table

@cindex exit status of @command{tty}
Exit status:

@display
0 if standard input is a terminal
1 if standard input is not a terminal
2 if given incorrect arguments
3 if a write error occurs
@end display


@node User information
@chapter User information

@cindex user information, commands for
@cindex commands for printing user information

This section describes commands that print user-related information:
logins, groups, and so forth.

@menu
* id invocation::               Print real and effective uid and gid.
* logname invocation::          Print current login name.
* whoami invocation::           Print effective user id.
* groups invocation::           Print group names a user is in.
* users invocation::            Print login names of users currently logged in.
* who invocation::              Print who is currently logged in.
@end menu


@node id invocation
@section @command{id}: Print real and effective uid and gid

@pindex id
@cindex real uid and gid, printing
@cindex effective uid and gid, printing
@cindex printing real and effective uid and gid

@command{id} prints information about the given user, or the process
running it if no user is specified.  Synopsis:

@example
id [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{username}]
@end example

By default, it prints the real user id, real group id, effective user id
if different from the real user id, effective group id if different from
the real group id, and supplemental group ids.

Each of these numeric values is preceded by an identifying string and
followed by the corresponding user or group name in parentheses.

The options cause @command{id} to print only part of the above information.
Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -g
@itemx --group
@opindex -g
@opindex --group
Print only the group id.

@item -G
@itemx --groups
@opindex -G
@opindex --groups
Print only the supplementary groups.

@item -n
@itemx --name
@opindex -n
@opindex --name
Print the user or group name instead of the ID number.  Requires
@code{-u}, @code{-g}, or @code{-G}.

@item -r
@itemx --real
@opindex -r
@opindex --real
Print the real, instead of effective, user or group id.  Requires
@code{-u}, @code{-g}, or @code{-G}.

@item -u
@itemx --user
@opindex -u
@opindex --user
Print only the user id.

@end table


@node logname invocation
@section @command{logname}: Print current login name

@pindex logname
@cindex printing user's login name
@cindex login name, printing
@cindex user name, printing

@flindex /etc/utmp
@flindex utmp

@command{logname} prints the calling user's name, as found in the file
@file{/etc/utmp}, and exits with a status of 0.  If there is no
@file{/etc/utmp} entry for the calling process, @command{logname} prints
an error message and exits with a status of 1.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.


@node whoami invocation
@section @command{whoami}: Print effective user id

@pindex whoami
@cindex effective UID, printing
@cindex printing the effective UID

@command{whoami} prints the user name associated with the current
effective user id.  It is equivalent to the command @samp{id -un}.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.


@node groups invocation
@section @command{groups}: Print group names a user is in

@pindex groups
@cindex printing groups a user is in
@cindex supplementary groups, printing

@command{groups} prints the names of the primary and any supplementary
groups for each given @var{username}, or the current process if no names
are given.  If names are given, the name of each user is printed before
the list of that user's groups.  Synopsis:

@example
groups [@var{username}]@dots{}
@end example

The group lists are equivalent to the output of the command @samp{id -Gn}.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.


@node users invocation
@section @command{users}: Print login names of users currently logged in

@pindex users
@cindex printing current usernames
@cindex usernames, printing current

@cindex login sessions, printing users with
@command{users} prints on a single line a blank-separated list of user
names of users currently logged in to the current host.  Each user name
corresponds to a login session, so if a user has more than one login
session, that user's name will appear the same number of times in the
output. Synopsis:

@example
users [@var{file}]
@end example

@flindex /etc/utmp
@flindex /etc/wtmp
With no @var{file} argument, @command{users} extracts its information from
the file @file{/etc/utmp}.  If a file argument is given, @command{users}
uses that file instead.  A common choice is @file{/etc/wtmp}.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.


@node who invocation
@section @command{who}: Print who is currently logged in

@pindex who
@cindex printing current user information
@cindex information, about current users

@command{who} prints information about users who are currently logged on.
Synopsis:

@example
@command{who} [@var{option}] [@var{file}] [am i]
@end example

@cindex terminal lines, currently used
@cindex login time
@cindex remote hostname
If given no non-option arguments, @command{who} prints the following
information for each user currently logged on: login name, terminal
line, login time, and remote hostname or X display.

@flindex /etc/utmp
@flindex /etc/wtmp
If given one non-option argument, @command{who} uses that instead of
@file{/etc/utmp} as the name of the file containing the record of
users logged on.  @file{/etc/wtmp} is commonly given as an argument
to @command{who} to look at who has previously logged on.

@opindex am i
@opindex who am i
If given two non-option arguments, @command{who} prints only the entry
for the user running it (determined from its standard input), preceded
by the hostname.  Traditionally, the two arguments given are @samp{am
i}, as in @samp{who am i}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -m
@opindex -m
Same as @samp{who am i}.

@item -q
@itemx --count
@opindex -q
@opindex --count
Print only the login names and the number of users logged on.
Overrides all other options.

@item -s
@opindex -s
Ignored; for compatibility with other versions of @command{who}.

@item -i
@itemx -u
@itemx --idle
@opindex -i
@opindex -u
@opindex --idle
@cindex idle time
After the login time, print the number of hours and minutes that the
user has been idle.  @samp{.} means the user was active in last minute.
@samp{old} means the user was idle for more than 24 hours.

@item -l
@itemx --lookup
@opindex -l
@opindex --lookup
Attempt to canonicalize hostnames found in utmp through a DNS lookup.  This
is not the default because it can cause significant delays on systems with
automatic dial-up internet access.

@item -H
@itemx --heading
@opindex -H
@opindex --heading
Print a line of column headings.

@item -w
@itemx -T
@itemx --mesg
@itemx --message
@itemx --writable
@opindex -w
@opindex -T
@opindex --mesg
@opindex --message
@opindex --writable
@cindex message status
@pindex write@r{, allowed}
After each login name print a character indicating the user's message status:

@display
@samp{+} allowing @code{write} messages
@samp{-} disallowing @code{write} messages
@samp{?} cannot find terminal device
@end display

@end table


@node System context
@chapter System context

@cindex system context
@cindex context, system
@cindex commands for system context

This section describes commands that print or change system-wide
information.

@menu
* date invocation::             Print or set system date and time.
* uname invocation::            Print system information.
* hostname invocation::         Print or set system name.
* hostid invocation::           Print numeric host identifier.
@end menu


@node date invocation
@section @command{date}: Print or set system date and time

@pindex date
@cindex time, printing or setting
@cindex printing the current time

Synopses:

@example
date [@var{option}]@dots{} [+@var{format}]
date [-u|--utc|--universal] @c this avoids a newline in the output
[ MMDDhhmm[[CC]YY][.ss] ]
@end example

Invoking @command{date} with no @var{format} argument is equivalent to invoking
@samp{date '+%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Z %Y'}.

@findex strftime @r{and @command{date}}
@cindex time formats
@cindex formatting times
If given an argument that starts with a @samp{+}, @command{date} prints the
current time and date (or the time and date specified by the
@code{--date} option, see below) in the format defined by that argument,
which is the same as in the @code{strftime} function.  Except for
directives, which start with @samp{%}, characters in the format string
are printed unchanged.  The directives are described below.

@menu
* Time directives::             %[HIklMprsSTXzZ]
* Date directives::             %[aAbBcdDhjmUwWxyY]
* Literal directives::          %[%nt]
* Padding::                     Pad with zeroes, spaces (%_), or nothing (%-).
* Setting the time::            Changing the system clock.
* Options for date::            Instead of the current time.
* Examples of date::            Examples.
@end menu

@node Time directives
@subsection Time directives

@cindex time directives
@cindex directives, time

@command{date} directives related to times.

@table @samp
@item %H
hour (00@dots{}23)
@item %I
hour (01@dots{}12)
@item %k
hour ( 0@dots{}23)
@item %l
hour ( 1@dots{}12)
@item %M
minute (00@dots{}59)
@item %N
nanoseconds (000000000@dots{}999999999)
@item %p
locale's upper case @samp{AM} or @samp{PM} (blank in many locales)
@item %P
locale's lower case @samp{am} or @samp{pm} (blank in many locales)
@item %r
time, 12-hour (hh:mm:ss [AP]M)
@item %R
time, 24-hour (hh:mm).  Same as @code{%H:%M}.
@item %s
@cindex epoch, seconds since
@cindex seconds since the epoch
@cindex beginning of time
seconds since the epoch, i.e., 1 January 1970 00:00:00 UTC (a
GNU extension).
Note that this value is the number of seconds between the epoch
and the current date as defined by the localtime system call.
It isn't changed by the @option{--date} option.
@item %S
second (00@dots{}60).  The range is [00@dots{}60], and not [00@dots{}59],
in order to accommodate the occasional positive leap second.
@item %T
time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)
@item %X
locale's time representation (%H:%M:%S)
@item %z
RFC-822 style numeric time zone (e.g., -0600 or +0100), or nothing if no
time zone is determinable.  This value reflects the @emph{current} time
zone.  It isn't changed by the @option{--date} option.
@item %Z
time zone (e.g., EDT), or nothing if no time zone is
determinable.
Note that this value reflects the @emph{current} time zone.
It isn't changed by the @option{--date} option.
@end table


@node Date directives
@subsection Date directives

@cindex date directives
@cindex directives, date

@command{date} directives related to dates.

@table @samp
@item %a
locale's abbreviated weekday name (Sun@dots{}Sat)
@item %A
locale's full weekday name, variable length (Sunday@dots{}Saturday)
@item %b
locale's abbreviated month name (Jan@dots{}Dec)
@item %B
locale's full month name, variable length (January@dots{}December)
@item %c
locale's date and time (Sat Nov 04 12:02:33 EST 1989)
@item %C
century (year divided by 100 and truncated to an integer) (00@dots{}99)
@item %d
day of month (01@dots{}31)
@item %D
date (mm/dd/yy)
@item %e
blank-padded day of month (1@dots{}31)
@item %F
the @w{ISO 8601} standard date format: @code{%Y-%m-%d}.
This is the preferred form for all uses.
@item %g
The year corresponding to the ISO week number, but without the century
(range @code{00} through @code{99}).  This has the same format and value
as @code{%y}, except that if the ISO week number (see @code{%V}) belongs
to the previous or next year, that year is used instead.
@item %G
The year corresponding to the ISO week number.  This has the same format
and value as @code{%Y}, except that if the ISO week number (see
@code{%V}) belongs to the previous or next year, that year is used
instead.
@item %h
same as %b
@item %j
day of year (001@dots{}366)
@item %m
month (01@dots{}12)
@item %u
day of week (1@dots{}7) with 1 corresponding to Monday
@item %U
week number of year with Sunday as first day of week (00@dots{}53).
Days in a new year preceding the first Sunday are in week zero.
@item %V
week number of year with Monday as first day of the week as a decimal
(01@dots{}53). If the week containing January 1 has four or more days in
the new year, then it is considered week 1; otherwise, it is week 53 of
the previous year, and the next week is week 1. (See the @acronym{ISO} 8601
standard.)
@item %w
day of week (0@dots{}6) with 0 corresponding to Sunday
@item %W
week number of year with Monday as first day of week (00@dots{}53).
Days in a new year preceding the first Monday are in week zero.
@item %x
locale's date representation (mm/dd/yy)
@item %y
last two digits of year (00@dots{}99)
@item %Y
year (1970@dots{}.)
@end table


@node Literal directives
@subsection Literal directives

@cindex literal directives
@cindex directives, literal

@command{date} directives that produce literal strings.

@table @samp
@item %%
a literal %
@item %n
a newline
@item %t
a horizontal tab
@end table


@node Padding
@subsection Padding

@cindex numeric field padding
@cindex padding of numeric fields
@cindex fields, padding numeric

By default, @command{date} pads numeric fields with zeroes, so that, for
example, numeric months are always output as two digits. GNU @command{date}
recognizes the following numeric modifiers between the @samp{%} and the
directive.

@table @samp
@item -
(hyphen) do not pad the field; useful if the output is intended for
human consumption.
@item _
(underscore) pad the field with spaces; useful if you need a fixed
number of characters in the output, but zeroes are too distracting.
@end table

@noindent
These are GNU extensions.

Here is an example illustrating the differences:

@example
date +%d/%m -d "Feb 1"
@result{} 01/02
date +%-d/%-m -d "Feb 1"
@result{} 1/2
date +%_d/%_m -d "Feb 1"
@result{}  1/ 2
@end example


@node Setting the time
@subsection Setting the time

@cindex setting the time
@cindex time setting
@cindex appropriate privileges

If given an argument that does not start with @samp{+}, @command{date} sets
the system clock to the time and date specified by that argument (as
described below).  You must have appropriate privileges to set the
system clock.  The @option{--date} and @option{--set} options may not be
used with such an argument.  The @option{--universal} option may be used
with such an argument to indicate that the specified time and date are
relative to Coordinated Universal Time rather than to the local time
zone.

The argument must consist entirely of digits, which have the following
meaning:

@table @samp
@item MM
month
@item DD
day within month
@item hh
hour
@item mm
minute
@item CC
first two digits of year (optional)
@item YY
last two digits of year (optional)
@item ss
second (optional)
@end table

The @option{--set} option also sets the system clock; see the next section.


@node Options for date
@subsection Options for @command{date}

@cindex @command{date} options
@cindex options for @command{date}

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -d @var{datestr}
@itemx --date=@var{datestr}
@opindex -d
@opindex --date
@cindex parsing date strings
@cindex date strings, parsing
@cindex arbitrary date strings, parsing
@opindex yesterday
@opindex tomorrow
@opindex next @var{day}
@opindex last @var{day}
Display the time and date specified in @var{datestr} instead of the
current time and date.  @var{datestr} can be in almost any common
format.  It can contain month names, time zones, @samp{am} and @samp{pm},
@samp{yesterday}, @samp{ago}, @samp{next}, etc.  @xref{Date input formats}.

@item -f @var{datefile}
@itemx --file=@var{datefile}
@opindex -f
@opindex --file
Parse each line in @var{datefile} as with @option{-d} and display the
resulting time and date.  If @var{datefile} is @samp{-}, use standard
input.  This is useful when you have many dates to process, because the
system overhead of starting up the @command{date} executable many times can
be considerable.

@item -I @var{timespec}
@itemx --iso-8601[=@var{timespec}]
@opindex -I @var{timespec}
@opindex --iso-8601[=@var{timespec}]
Display the date using the @acronym{ISO} 8601 format, @samp{%Y-%m-%d}.

The argument @var{timespec} specifies the number of additional
terms of the time to include.  It can be one of the following:
@table @samp
@item auto
The default behavior: print just the date.

@item hours
Append the hour of the day to the date.

@item minutes
Append the hours and minutes.

@item seconds
Append the hours, minutes, and seconds.
@end table

If showing any time terms, then include the time zone using the format
@samp{%z}.

If @var{timespec} is omitted with @option{--iso-8601}, the default is
@samp{auto}.  On older systems, @sc{gnu} @command{date} instead
supports an obsolete option @option{-I[@var{timespec}]}, where
@var{timespec} defaults to @samp{auto}.  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001
(@pxref{Standards conformance}) does not allow @option{-I} without an
argument; use @option{--iso-8601} instead.

@item -R
@itemx --rfc-822
@opindex -R
@opindex --rfc-822
Display the time and date using the RFC-822-conforming
format, @samp{%a, %_d %b %Y %H:%M:%S %z}.

@item -r @var{file}
@itemx --reference=@var{file}
@opindex -r
@opindex --reference
Display the time and date reference according to the last modification
time of @var{file}, instead of the current time and date.

@item -s @var{datestr}
@itemx --set=@var{datestr}
@opindex -s
@opindex --set
Set the time and date to @var{datestr}.  See @option{-d} above.

@item -u
@itemx --utc
@itemx --universal
@opindex -u
@opindex --utc
@opindex --universal
@cindex Coordinated Universal Time
@cindex UTC
@cindex Greenwich Mean Time
@cindex GMT
Use Coordinated Universal Time (@acronym{UTC}) by operating as if the
@env{TZ} environment variable were set to the string @samp{UTC0}.
Normally, @command{date} operates in the time zone indicated by
@env{TZ}, or the system default if @env{TZ} is not set.  Coordinated
Universal Time is often called ``Greenwich Mean Time'' (@sc{gmt}) for
historical reasons.
@end table


@node Examples of date
@subsection Examples of @command{date}

@cindex examples of @command{date}

Here are a few examples.  Also see the documentation for the @option{-d}
option in the previous section.

@itemize @bullet

@item
To print the date of the day before yesterday:

@example
date --date='2 days ago'
@end example

@item
To print the date of the day three months and one day hence:
@example
date --date='3 months 1 day'
@end example

@item
To print the day of year of Christmas in the current year:
@example
date --date='25 Dec' +%j
@end example

@item
To print the current full month name and the day of the month:
@example
date '+%B %d'
@end example

But this may not be what you want because for the first nine days of
the month, the @samp{%d} expands to a zero-padded two-digit field,
for example @samp{date -d 1may '+%B %d'} will print @samp{May 01}.

@item
To print a date without the leading zero for one-digit days
of the month, you can use the (GNU extension) @code{-} modifier to suppress
the padding altogether.
@example
date -d 1may '+%B %-d
@end example

@item
To print the current date and time in the format required by many
non-GNU versions of @command{date} when setting the system clock:
@example
date +%m%d%H%M%Y.%S
@end example

@item
To set the system clock forward by two minutes:
@example
date --set='+2 minutes'
@end example

@item
To print the date in the format specified by RFC-822,
use @samp{date --rfc}.  I just did and saw this:

@example
Mon, 25 Mar 1996 23:34:17 -0600
@end example

@item
To convert a date string to the number of seconds since the epoch
(which is 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC), use the @option{--date} option with
the @samp{%s} format.  That can be useful in sorting and/or graphing
and/or comparing data by date.  The following command outputs the
number of the seconds since the epoch for the time two minutes after the
epoch:

@example
date --date='1970-01-01 00:02:00 +0000' +%s
120
@end example

If you do not specify time zone information in the date string,
@command{date} uses your computer's idea of the time zone when
interpreting the string.  For example, if your computer's time zone is
that of Cambridge, Massachusetts, which was then 5 hours (i.e., 18,000
seconds) behind UTC:

@example
# local time zone used
date --date='1970-01-01 00:02:00' +%s
18120
@end example

@item
If you're sorting or graphing dated data, your raw date values may be
represented as seconds since the epoch.  But few people can look at
the date @samp{946684800} and casually note ``Oh, that's the first second
of the year 2000 in Greenwich, England.''

@example
date --date='2000-01-01 UTC' +%s
946684800
@end example

To convert such an unwieldy number of seconds back to
a more readable form, use a command like this:

@smallexample
# local time zone used
date -d '1970-01-01 UTC 946684800 seconds' +"%Y-%m-%d %T %z"
1999-12-31 19:00:00 -0500
@end smallexample

@end itemize


@node uname invocation
@section @command{uname}: Print system information

@pindex uname
@cindex print system information
@cindex system information, printing

@command{uname} prints information about the machine and operating system
it is run on.  If no options are given, @command{uname} acts as if the
@code{-s} option were given. Synopsis:

@example
uname [@var{option}]@dots{}
@end example

If multiple options or @code{-a} are given, the selected information is
printed in this order:

@example
@var{kernel-name} @var{nodename} @var{kernel-release} @var{kernel-version} @var{machine} @var{processor} @var{hardware-platform} @var{operating-system}
@end example

The information may contain internal spaces, so such output cannot be
parsed reliably.  In the following example, @var{release} is
@samp{2.2.18ss.e820-bda652a #4 SMP Tue Jun 5 11:24:08 PDT 2001}:

@example
uname -a
@result{} Linux dum 2.2.18ss.e820-bda652a #4 SMP Tue Jun 5 11:24:08 PDT 2001 i686 unknown unknown GNU/Linux
@end example


The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -a
@itemx --all
@opindex -a
@opindex --all
Print all of the below information.

@item -i
@itemx --hardware-platform
@opindex -i
@opindex --hardware-platform
@cindex implementation, hardware
@cindex hardware platform
@cindex platform, hardware
Print the hardware platform name
(sometimes called the hardware implementation).

@item -m
@itemx --machine
@opindex -m
@opindex --machine
@cindex machine type
@cindex hardware class
@cindex hardware type
Print the machine hardware name (sometimes called the hardware class).

@item -n
@itemx --nodename
@opindex -n
@opindex --nodename
@cindex hostname
@cindex node name
@cindex network node name
Print the network node hostname.

@item -p
@itemx --processor
@opindex -p
@opindex --processor
@cindex host processor type
Print the processor type (sometimes called the instruction set
architecture or ISA).

@item -o
@itemx --operating-system
@opindex -o
@opindex --operating-system
@cindex operating system name
Print the name of the operating system.

@item -r
@itemx --kernel-release
@opindex -r
@opindex --kernel-release
@cindex kernel release
@cindex release of kernel
Print the kernel release.

@item -s
@itemx --kernel-name
@opindex -s
@opindex --kernel-name
@cindex kernel name
@cindex name of kernel
Print the kernel name.

@item -v
@itemx --kernel-version
@opindex -v
@opindex --kernel-version
@cindex kernel version
@cindex version of kernel
Print the kernel version.

@end table

@node hostname invocation
@section @command{hostname}: Print or set system name

@pindex hostname
@cindex setting the hostname
@cindex printing the hostname
@cindex system name, printing
@cindex appropriate privileges

With no arguments, @command{hostname} prints the name of the current host
system.  With one argument, it sets the current host name to the
specified string.  You must have appropriate privileges to set the host
name. Synopsis:

@example
hostname [@var{name}]
@end example

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.


@node hostid invocation
@section @command{hostid}: Print numeric host identifier.

@pindex hostid
@cindex printing the host identifier

@command{hostid} prints the numeric identifier of the current host
in hexadecimal.  This command accepts no arguments.
The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.
@xref{Common options}.

For example, here's what it prints on one system I use:

@example
$ hostid
1bac013d
@end example

On that system, the 32-bit quantity happens to be closely
related to the system's Internet address, but that isn't always
the case.


@node Modified command invocation
@chapter Modified command invocation

@cindex modified command invocation
@cindex invocation of commands, modified
@cindex commands for invoking other commands

This section describes commands that run other commands in some context
different than the current one: a modified environment, as a different
user, etc.

@menu
* chroot invocation::           Modify the root directory.
* env invocation::              Modify environment variables.
* nice invocation::             Modify scheduling priority.
* nohup invocation::            Immunize to hangups.
* su invocation::               Modify user and group id.
@end menu


@node chroot invocation
@section @command{chroot}: Run a command with a different root directory

@pindex chroot
@cindex running a program in a specified root directory
@cindex root directory, running a program in a specified

@command{chroot} runs a command with a specified root directory.
On many systems, only the super-user can do this.
Synopses:

@example
chroot @var{newroot} [@var{command} [@var{args}]@dots{}]
chroot @var{option}
@end example

Ordinarily, filenames are looked up starting at the root of the
directory structure, i.e., @file{/}.  @command{chroot} changes the root to
the directory @var{newroot} (which must exist) and then runs
@var{command} with optional @var{args}.  If @var{command} is not
specified, the default is the value of the @env{SHELL} environment
variable or @code{/bin/sh} if not set, invoked with the @option{-i} option.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

Here are a few tips to help avoid common problems in using chroot.
To start with a simple example, make @var{command} refer to a statically
linked binary.  If you were to use a dynamically linked executable, then
you'd have to arrange to have the shared libraries in the right place under
your new root directory.

For example, if you create a statically linked `ls' executable,
and put it in /tmp/empty, you can run this command as root:

@example
$ chroot /tmp/empty /ls -Rl /
@end example

Then you'll see output like this:

@example
/:
total 1023
-rwxr-xr-x    1 0        0         1041745 Aug 16 11:17 ls
@end example

If you want to use a dynamically linked executable, say @code{bash},
then first run @samp{ldd bash} to see what shared objects it needs.
Then, in addition to copying the actual binary, also copy the listed
files to the required positions under your intended new root directory.
Finally, if the executable requires any other files (e.g., data, state,
device files), copy them into place, too.


@node env invocation
@section @command{env}: Run a command in a modified environment

@pindex env
@cindex environment, running a program in a modified
@cindex modified environment, running a program in a
@cindex running a program in a modified environment

@command{env} runs a command with a modified environment.  Synopses:

@example
env [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{name}=@var{value}]@dots{} @c
[@var{command} [@var{args}]@dots{}]
env
@end example

Arguments of the form @samp{@var{variable}=@var{value}} set
the environment variable @var{variable} to value @var{value}.
@var{value} may be empty (@samp{@var{variable}=}).  Setting a variable
to an empty value is different from unsetting it.

@vindex PATH
The first remaining argument specifies the program name to invoke; it is
searched for according to the @env{PATH} environment variable.  Any
remaining arguments are passed as arguments to that program.

@cindex environment, printing

If no command name is specified following the environment
specifications, the resulting environment is printed.  This is like
specifying a command name of @command{printenv}.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp

@item -u @var{name}
@itemx --unset=@var{name}
@opindex -u
@opindex -unset
Remove variable @var{name} from the environment, if it was in the
environment.

@item -
@itemx -i
@itemx --ignore-environment
@opindex -
@opindex -i
@opindex --ignore-environment
Start with an empty environment, ignoring the inherited environment.

@end table


@node nice invocation
@section @command{nice}: Run a command with modified scheduling priority

@pindex nice
@cindex modifying scheduling priority
@cindex scheduling priority, modifying
@cindex priority, modifying
@cindex appropriate privileges

@command{nice} prints or modifies the scheduling priority of a job.
Synopsis:

@example
nice [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{command} [@var{arg}]@dots{}]
@end example

If no arguments are given, @command{nice} prints the current scheduling
priority, which it inherited.  Otherwise, @command{nice} runs the given
@var{command} with its scheduling priority adjusted.  If no
@var{adjustment} is given, the priority of the command is incremented by
10.  You must have appropriate privileges to specify a negative
adjustment.  The priority can be adjusted by @command{nice} over the range
of -20 (the highest priority) to 19 (the lowest).

@cindex conflicts with shell built-ins
@cindex built-in shell commands, conflicts with
Because most shells have a built-in command by the same name, using the
unadorned command name in a script or interactively may get you
different functionality than that described here.

The program accepts the following option.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -n @var{adjustment}
@itemx --adjustment=@var{adjustment}
@opindex -n
@opindex --adjustment
Add @var{adjustment} instead of 10 to the command's priority.

On older systems, @command{nice} supports an obsolete option
@option{-@var{adjustment}}.  @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 (@pxref{Standards
conformance}) does not allow this; use @option{-n @var{adjustment}}
instead.

@end table


@node nohup invocation
@section @command{nohup}: Run a command immune to hangups

@pindex nohup
@cindex hangups, immunity to
@cindex immunity to hangups
@cindex logging out and continuing to run

@flindex nohup.out
@command{nohup} runs the given @var{command} with hangup signals ignored,
so that the command can continue running in the background after you log
out. Synopsis:

@example
nohup @var{command} [@var{arg}]@dots{}
@end example

@flindex nohup.out
If standard output is a terminal, it is redirected so that it is appended
to the file @file{nohup.out}; if that cannot be written to, it is appended
to the file @file{$HOME/nohup.out}.  If that cannot be written to, the
command is not run.

If @command{nohup} creates either @file{nohup.out} or
@file{$HOME/nohup.out}, it creates it with no ``group'' or ``other''
access permissions.  It does not change the permissions if the output
file already existed.

If standard error is a terminal, it is redirected to the same file
descriptor as the standard output.

@command{nohup} does not automatically put the command it runs in the
background; you must do that explicitly, by ending the command line
with an @samp{&}.  Also, @command{nohup} does not change the
scheduling priority of @var{command}; use @command{nice} for that,
e.g., @samp{nohup nice @var{command}}.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

@cindex exit status of @command{nohup}
Exit status:

@display
126 if @var{command} was found but could not be invoked
127 if @command{nohup} itself failed or if @var{command} could not be found
the exit status of @var{command} otherwise
@end display


@node su invocation
@section @command{su}: Run a command with substitute user and group id

@pindex su
@cindex substitute user and group ids
@cindex user id, switching
@cindex super-user, becoming
@cindex root, becoming

@command{su} allows one user to temporarily become another user.  It runs a
command (often an interactive shell) with the real and effective user
id, group id, and supplemental groups of a given @var{user}. Synopsis:

@example
su [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{user} [@var{arg}]@dots{}]
@end example

@cindex passwd entry, and @command{su} shell
@flindex /bin/sh
@flindex /etc/passwd
If no @var{user} is given, the default is @code{root}, the super-user.
The shell to use is taken from @var{user}'s @code{passwd} entry, or
@file{/bin/sh} if none is specified there.  If @var{user} has a
password, @command{su} prompts for the password unless run by a user with
effective user id of zero (the super-user).

@vindex HOME
@vindex SHELL
@vindex USER
@vindex LOGNAME
@cindex login shell
By default, @command{su} does not change the current directory.
It sets the environment variables @env{HOME} and @env{SHELL}
from the password entry for @var{user}, and if @var{user} is not
the super-user, sets @env{USER} and @env{LOGNAME} to @var{user}.
By default, the shell is not a login shell.

Any additional @var{arg}s are passed as additional arguments to the
shell.

@cindex @option{-su}
GNU @command{su} does not treat @file{/bin/sh} or any other shells specially
(e.g., by setting @code{argv[0]} to @option{-su}, passing @code{-c} only
to certain shells, etc.).

@findex syslog
@command{su} can optionally be compiled to use @code{syslog} to report
failed, and optionally successful, @command{su} attempts.  (If the system
supports @code{syslog}.)  However, GNU @command{su} does not check if the
user is a member of the @code{wheel} group; see below.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -c @var{command}
@itemx --command=@var{command}
@opindex -c
@opindex --command
Pass @var{command}, a single command line to run, to the shell with
a @code{-c} option instead of starting an interactive shell.

@item -f
@itemx --fast
@opindex -f
@opindex --fast
@flindex .cshrc
@cindex file name pattern expansion, disabled
@cindex globbing, disabled
Pass the @code{-f} option to the shell.  This probably only makes sense
if the shell run is @code{csh} or @code{tcsh}, for which the @code{-f}
option prevents reading the startup file (@file{.cshrc}).  With
Bourne-like shells, the @code{-f} option disables file name pattern
expansion (globbing), which is not likely to be useful.

@item -
@itemx -l
@itemx --login
@opindex -
@opindex -l
@opindex --login
@c other variables already indexed above
@vindex TERM
@vindex PATH
@cindex login shell, creating
Make the shell a login shell.  This means the following.  Unset all
environment variables except @env{TERM}, @env{HOME}, and @env{SHELL}
(which are set as described above), and @env{USER} and @env{LOGNAME}
(which are set, even for the super-user, as described above), and set
@env{PATH} to a compiled-in default value.  Change to @var{user}'s home
directory.  Prepend @samp{-} to the shell's name, intended to make it
read its login startup file(s).

@item -m
@itemx -p
@itemx --preserve-environment
@opindex -m
@opindex -p
@opindex --preserve-environment
@cindex environment, preserving
@flindex /etc/shells
@cindex restricted shell
Do not change the environment variables @env{HOME}, @env{USER},
@env{LOGNAME}, or @env{SHELL}.  Run the shell given in the environment
variable @env{SHELL} instead of the shell from @var{user}'s passwd
entry, unless the user running @command{su} is not the superuser and
@var{user}'s shell is restricted.  A @dfn{restricted shell} is one that
is not listed in the file @file{/etc/shells}, or in a compiled-in list
if that file does not exist.  Parts of what this option does can be
overridden by @code{--login} and @code{--shell}.

@item -s @var{shell}
@itemx --shell=@var{shell}
@opindex -s
@opindex --shell
Run @var{shell} instead of the shell from @var{user}'s passwd entry,
unless the user running @command{su} is not the superuser and @var{user}'s
shell is restricted (see @option{-m} just above).

@end table

@cindex wheel group, not supported
@cindex group wheel, not supported
@cindex fascism
@heading Why GNU @command{su} does not support the @samp{wheel} group

(This section is by Richard Stallman.)

@cindex Twenex
@cindex MIT AI lab
Sometimes a few of the users try to hold total power over all the
rest.  For example, in 1984, a few users at the MIT AI lab decided to
seize power by changing the operator password on the Twenex system and
keeping it secret from everyone else.  (I was able to thwart this coup
and give power back to the users by patching the kernel, but I
wouldn't know how to do that in Unix.)

However, occasionally the rulers do tell someone.  Under the usual
@command{su} mechanism, once someone learns the root password who
sympathizes with the ordinary users, he or she can tell the rest.  The
``wheel group'' feature would make this impossible, and thus cement the
power of the rulers.

I'm on the side of the masses, not that of the rulers.  If you are
used to supporting the bosses and sysadmins in whatever they do, you
might find this idea strange at first.


@node Process control
@chapter Process control

@cindex processes, commands for controlling
@cindex commands for controlling processes

@menu
* kill invocation::             Sending a signal to processes.
@end menu


@node kill invocation
@section @command{kill}: Send a signal to processes

@pindex kill
@cindex send a signal to processes

The @command{kill} command sends a signal to processes, causing them
to terminate or otherwise act upon receiving the signal in some way.
Alternatively, it lists information about signals.  Synopses:

@example
kill [-s @var{signal} | --signal @var{signal} | -@var{signal}] @var{pid}@dots{}
kill [-l | --list | -t | --table] [@var{signal}]@dots{}
@end example

The first form of the @command{kill} command sends a signal to all
@var{pid} arguments.  The default signal to send if none is specified
is @samp{TERM}.  The special signal number @samp{0} does not denote a
valid signal, but can be used to test whether the @var{pid} arguments
specify processes to which a signal could be sent.

If @var{pid} is positive, the signal is sent to the process with the
process id @var{pid}.  If @var{pid} is zero, the signal is sent to all
processes in the process group of the current process.  If @var{pid}
is -1, the signal is sent to all processes for which the user has
permission to send a signal.  If @var{pid} is less than -1, the signal
is sent to all processes in the process group that equals the absolute
value of @var{pid}.

If @var{pid} is not positive, a system-dependent set of system
processes is excluded from the list of processes to which the signal
is sent.

If a negative @var{PID} argument is desired as the first one, either a
signal must be specified as well, or the option parsing
must be interrupted with `--' before the first @var{pid} argument.
The following three commands are equivalent:

@example
kill -15 -1
kill -TERM -1
kill -- -1
@end example

The first form of the @command{kill} command succeeds if every @var{pid}
argument specifies at least one process that the signal was sent to.

The second form of the @command{kill} command lists signal information.
Either the @option{-l} or @option{--list} option, or the @option{-t}
or @option{--table} option must be specified.  Without any
@var{signal} argument, all supported signals are listed.  The output
of @option{-l} or @option{--list} is a list of the signal names, one
per line; if @var{signal} is already a name, the signal number is
printed instead.  The output of @option{-t} or @option{--table} is a
table of signal numbers, names, and descriptions.  This form of the
@command{kill} command succeeds if all @var{signal} arguments are valid
and if there is no output error.

The @command{kill} command also supports the @option{--help} and
@option{--version} options.  @xref{Common options}.

A @var{signal} may be a signal name like @samp{HUP}, or a signal
number like @samp{1}, or an exit status of a process terminated by the
signal.  A signal name can be given in canonical form or prefixed by
@samp{SIG}.  The case of the letters is ignored, except for the
@option{-@var{signal}} option which must use upper case to avoid
ambiguity with lower case option letters.  The following signal names
and numbers are supported on all @acronym{POSIX} compliant systems:

@table @samp
@item HUP
1.  Hangup.
@item INT
2.  Terminal interrupt.
@item QUIT
3.  Terminal quit.
@item ABRT
6.  Process abort.
@item KILL
9.  Kill (cannot be caught or ignored).
@item ALRM
14.  Alarm Clock.
@item TERM
15.  Termination.
@end table

@noindent
Other supported signal names have system-dependent corresponding
numbers.  All systems conforming to @acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 also
support the following signals:

@table @samp
@item BUS
Access to an undefined portion of a memory object.
@item CHLD
Child process terminated, stopped, or continued.
@item CONT
Continue executing, if stopped.
@item FPE
Erroneous arithmetic operation.
@item ILL
Illegal Instruction.
@item PIPE
Write on a pipe with no one to read it.
@item SEGV
Invalid memory reference.
@item STOP
Stop executing (cannot be caught or ignored).
@item TSTP
Terminal stop.
@item TTIN
Background process attempting read.
@item TTOU
Background process attempting write.
@item URG
High bandwidth data is available at a socket.
@item USR1
User-defined signal 1.
@item USR2
User-defined signal 2.
@end table

@noindent
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 systems that support the @acronym{XSI} extension
also support the following signals:

@table @samp
@item POLL
Pollable event.
@item PROF
Profiling timer expired.
@item SYS
Bad system call.
@item TRAP
Trace/breakpoint trap.
@item VTALRM
Virtual timer expired.
@item XCPU
CPU time limit exceeded.
@item XFSZ
File size limit exceeded.
@end table

@noindent
@acronym{POSIX} 1003.1-2001 systems that support the @acronym{XRT} extension
also support at least eight real-time signals called @samp{RTMIN},
@samp{RTMIN+1}, @dots{}, @samp{RTMAX-1}, @samp{RTMAX}.


@node Delaying
@chapter Delaying

@cindex delaying commands
@cindex commands for delaying

@c Perhaps @code{wait} or other commands should be described here also?

@menu
* sleep invocation::            Delay for a specified time.
@end menu


@node sleep invocation
@section @command{sleep}: Delay for a specified time

@pindex sleep
@cindex delay for a specified time

@command{sleep} pauses for an amount of time specified by the sum of
the values of the command line arguments.
Synopsis:

@example
sleep @var{number}[smhd]@dots{}
@end example

@cindex time units
Each argument is a number followed by an optional unit; the default
is seconds.  The units are:

@table @samp
@item s
seconds
@item m
minutes
@item h
hours
@item d
days
@end table

Historical implementations of @command{sleep} have required that
@var{number} be an integer.  However, GNU @command{sleep} accepts
arbitrary floating point numbers.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.


@node Numeric operations
@chapter Numeric operations

@cindex numeric operations
These programs do numerically-related operations.

@menu
* factor invocation::              Show factors of numbers.
* seq invocation::                 Print sequences of numbers.
@end menu


@node factor invocation
@section @command{factor}: Print prime factors

@pindex factor
@cindex prime factors

@command{factor} prints prime factors.  Synopses:

@example
factor [@var{number}]@dots{}
factor @var{option}
@end example

If no @var{number} is specified on the command line, @command{factor} reads
numbers from standard input, delimited by newlines, tabs, or spaces.

The only options are @option{--help} and @option{--version}.  @xref{Common
options}.

The algorithm it uses is not very sophisticated, so for some inputs
@command{factor} runs for a long time.  The hardest numbers to factor are
the products of large primes.  Factoring the product of the two largest 32-bit
prime numbers takes over 10 minutes of CPU time on a 400MHz Pentium II.

@example
$ p=`echo '4294967279 * 4294967291'|bc`
$ factor $p
18446743979220271189: 4294967279 4294967291
@end example

In contrast, @command{factor} factors the largest 64-bit number in just
over a tenth of a second:

@example
$ factor `echo '2^64-1'|bc`
18446744073709551615: 3 5 17 257 641 65537 6700417
@end example

@node seq invocation
@section @command{seq}: Print numeric sequences

@pindex seq
@cindex numeric sequences
@cindex sequence of numbers

@command{seq} prints a sequence of numbers to standard output.  Synopses:

@example
seq [@var{option}]@dots{} [@var{first} [@var{increment}]] @var{last}@dots{}
@end example

@command{seq} prints the numbers from @var{first} to @var{last} by
@var{increment}.  By default, @var{first} and @var{increment} are both 1,
and each number is printed on its own line.  All numbers can be reals,
not just integers.

The program accepts the following options.  Also see @ref{Common options}.

@table @samp
@item -f @var{format}
@itemx --format=@var{format}
@opindex -f @var{format}
@opindex --format=@var{format}
@cindex formatting of numbers in @command{seq}
Print all numbers using @var{format}; default @samp{%g}.
@var{format} must contain exactly one of the floating point
output formats @samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, or @samp{%g}.

@item -s @var{string}
@itemx --separator=@var{string}
@cindex separator for numbers in @command{seq}
Separate numbers with @var{string}; default is a newline.
The output always terminates with a newline.

@item -w
@itemx --equal-width
Print all numbers with the same width, by padding with leading zeroes.
(To have other kinds of padding, use @option{--format}).

@end table

If you want to use @command{seq} to print sequences of large integer values,
don't use the default @samp{%g} format since it can result in
loss of precision:

@example
$ seq 1000000 1000001
1e+06
1e+06
@end example

Instead, you can use the format, @samp{%1.f},
to print large decimal numbers with no exponent and no decimal point.

@example
$ seq --format=%1.f 1000000 1000001
1000000
1000001
@end example

If you want hexadecimal output, you can use @command{printf}
to perform the conversion:

@example
$ printf %x'\n' `seq -f %1.f 1048575 1024 1050623`
fffff
1003ff
1007ff
@end example

For very long lists of numbers, use xargs to avoid
system limitations on the length of an argument list:

@example
$ seq -f %1.f 1000000 | xargs printf %x'\n' | tail -n 3
f423e
f423f
f4240
@end example

To generate octal output, use the printf @code{%o} format instead
of @code{%x}.  Note however that using printf works only for numbers
smaller than @code{2^32}:

@example
$ printf "%x\n" `seq -f %1.f 4294967295 4294967296`
ffffffff
bash: printf: 4294967296: Numerical result out of range
@end example

On most systems, seq can produce whole-number output for values up to
@code{2^53}, so here's a more general approach to base conversion that
also happens to be more robust for such large numbers.  It works by
using @code{bc} and setting its output radix variable, @var{obase},
to @samp{16} in this case to produce hexadecimal output.

@example
$ (echo obase=16; seq -f %1.f 4294967295 4294967296)|bc
FFFFFFFF
100000000
@end example

Be careful when using @command{seq} with a fractional @var{increment},
otherwise you may see surprising results.  Most people would expect to
see @code{0.3} printed as the last number in this example:

@example
$ seq -s' ' 0 .1 .3
0 0.1 0.2
@end example

But that doesn't happen on most systems because @command{seq} is
implemented using binary floating point arithmetic (via the C
@code{double} type) -- which means some decimal numbers like @code{.1}
cannot be represented exactly.  That in turn means some nonintuitive
conditions like @code{.1 * 3 > .3} will end up being true.

To work around that in the above example, use a slightly larger number as
the @var{last} value:

@example
$ seq -s' ' 0 .1 .31
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
@end example

In general, when using an @var{increment} with a fractional part, where
(@var{last} - @var{first}) / @var{increment} is (mathematically) a whole
number, specify a slightly larger (or smaller, if @var{increment} is negative)
value for @var{last} to ensure that @var{last} is the final value printed
by seq.

@node File permissions
@chapter File permissions
@include perm.texi

@include getdate.texi

@c              What's GNU?
@c              Arnold Robbins
@node Opening the software toolbox
@chapter Opening the Software Toolbox

This chapter originally appeared in @cite{Linux Journal}, volume 1,
number 2, in the @cite{What's GNU?} column. It was written by Arnold
Robbins.

@menu
* Toolbox introduction::        Toolbox introduction
* I/O redirection::             I/O redirection
* The who command::             The @command{who} command
* The cut command::             The @command{cut} command
* The sort command::            The @command{sort} command
* The uniq command::            The @command{uniq} command
* Putting the tools together::  Putting the tools together
@end menu


@node Toolbox introduction
@unnumberedsec Toolbox Introduction

This month's column is only peripherally related to the GNU Project, in
that it describes a number of the GNU tools on your GNU/Linux system and how they
might be used.  What it's really about is the ``Software Tools'' philosophy
of program development and usage.

The software tools philosophy was an important and integral concept
in the initial design and development of Unix (of which Linux and GNU are
essentially clones).  Unfortunately, in the modern day press of
Internetworking and flashy GUIs, it seems to have fallen by the
wayside.  This is a shame, since it provides a powerful mental model
for solving many kinds of problems.

Many people carry a Swiss Army knife around in their pants pockets (or
purse).  A Swiss Army knife is a handy tool to have: it has several knife
blades, a screwdriver, tweezers, toothpick, nail file, corkscrew, and perhaps
a number of other things on it.  For the everyday, small miscellaneous jobs
where you need a simple, general purpose tool, it's just the thing.

On the other hand, an experienced carpenter doesn't build a house using
a Swiss Army knife.  Instead, he has a toolbox chock full of specialized
tools---a saw, a hammer, a screwdriver, a plane, and so on.  And he knows
exactly when and where to use each tool; you won't catch him hammering nails
with the handle of his screwdriver.

The Unix developers at Bell Labs were all professional programmers and trained
computer scientists.  They had found that while a one-size-fits-all program
might appeal to a user because there's only one program to use, in practice
such programs are

@enumerate a
@item
difficult to write,

@item
difficult to maintain and
debug, and

@item
difficult to extend to meet new situations.
@end enumerate

Instead, they felt that programs should be specialized tools.  In short, each
program ``should do one thing well.''  No more and no less.  Such programs are
simpler to design, write, and get right---they only do one thing.

Furthermore, they found that with the right machinery for hooking programs
together, that the whole was greater than the sum of the parts.  By combining
several special purpose programs, you could accomplish a specific task
that none of the programs was designed for, and accomplish it much more
quickly and easily than if you had to write a special purpose program.
We will see some (classic) examples of this further on in the column.
(An important additional point was that, if necessary, take a detour
and build any software tools you may need first, if you don't already
have something appropriate in the toolbox.)

@node I/O redirection
@unnumberedsec I/O Redirection

Hopefully, you are familiar with the basics of I/O redirection in the
shell, in particular the concepts of ``standard input,'' ``standard output,''
and ``standard error''.  Briefly, ``standard input'' is a data source, where
data comes from.  A program should not need to either know or care if the
data source is a disk file, a keyboard, a magnetic tape, or even a punched
card reader.  Similarly, ``standard output'' is a data sink, where data goes
to.  The program should neither know nor care where this might be.
Programs that only read their standard input, do something to the data,
and then send it on, are called @dfn{filters}, by analogy to filters in a
water pipeline.

With the Unix shell, it's very easy to set up data pipelines:

@smallexample
program_to_create_data | filter1 | .... | filterN > final.pretty.data
@end smallexample

We start out by creating the raw data; each filter applies some successive
transformation to the data, until by the time it comes out of the pipeline,
it is in the desired form.

This is fine and good for standard input and standard output.  Where does the
standard error come in to play?  Well, think about @command{filter1} in
the pipeline above.  What happens if it encounters an error in the data it
sees?  If it writes an error message to standard output, it will just
disappear down the pipeline into @command{filter2}'s input, and the
user will probably never see it.  So programs need a place where they can send
error messages so that the user will notice them.  This is standard error,
and it is usually connected to your console or window, even if you have
redirected standard output of your program away from your screen.

For filter programs to work together, the format of the data has to be
agreed upon.  The most straightforward and easiest format to use is simply
lines of text.  Unix data files are generally just streams of bytes, with
lines delimited by the @acronym{ASCII} @sc{lf} (Line Feed) character,
conventionally called a ``newline'' in the Unix literature. (This is
@code{'\n'} if you're a C programmer.)  This is the format used by all
the traditional filtering programs.  (Many earlier operating systems
had elaborate facilities and special purpose programs for managing
binary data.  Unix has always shied away from such things, under the
philosophy that it's easiest to simply be able to view and edit your
data with a text editor.)

OK, enough introduction. Let's take a look at some of the tools, and then
we'll see how to hook them together in interesting ways.   In the following
discussion, we will only present those command line options that interest
us.  As you should always do, double check your system documentation
for the full story.

@node The who command
@unnumberedsec The @command{who} Command

The first program is the @command{who} command.  By itself, it generates a
list of the users who are currently logged in.  Although I'm writing
this on a single-user system, we'll pretend that several people are
logged in:

@example
$ who
@print{} arnold   console Jan 22 19:57
@print{} miriam   ttyp0   Jan 23 14:19(:0.0)
@print{} bill     ttyp1   Jan 21 09:32(:0.0)
@print{} arnold   ttyp2   Jan 23 20:48(:0.0)
@end example

Here, the @samp{$} is the usual shell prompt, at which I typed @samp{who}.
There are three people logged in, and I am logged in twice.  On traditional
Unix systems, user names are never more than eight characters long.  This
little bit of trivia will be useful later.  The output of @command{who} is nice,
but the data is not all that exciting.

@node The cut command
@unnumberedsec The @command{cut} Command

The next program we'll look at is the @command{cut} command.  This program
cuts out columns or fields of input data.  For example, we can tell it
to print just the login name and full name from the @file{/etc/passwd}
file.  The @file{/etc/passwd} file has seven fields, separated by
colons:

@example
arnold:xyzzy:2076:10:Arnold D. Robbins:/home/arnold:/bin/bash
@end example

To get the first and fifth fields, we would use @command{cut} like this:

@example
$ cut -d: -f1,5 /etc/passwd
@print{} root:Operator
@dots{}
@print{} arnold:Arnold D. Robbins
@print{} miriam:Miriam A. Robbins
@dots{}
@end example

With the @option{-c} option, @command{cut} will cut out specific characters
(i.e., columns) in the input lines.  This is useful for input data
that has fixed width fields, and does not have a field separator.  For
example, list the Monday dates for the current month:

@c Is using cal ok?  Looked at gcal, but I don't like it.
@example
$ cal | cut -c 3-5
@print{}Mo
@print{}
@print{}  6
@print{} 13
@print{} 20
@print{} 27
@end example

Cut can also add field separators to fixed width data, using the
@option{--output-delimiter} option.  This can be very useful to fill a
database:

@c [Why] can't that silly total line for directories be switched off?
@example
$ ls -ld ~/* | cut --output-delimiter=, -c1,2-4,5-7,8-10,57- | tee home.cs
@print{} d,rwx,r-x,r-x,CVS
@print{} d,rwx,---,---,Mail
@print{} d,rwx,r-x,r-x,lilypond
@print{} d,rwx,r-x,r-x,savannah
$ mysql -e 'create table home \
  (d char(1),u char(3), g char (3), o char (3), name text)' test
$ mysqlimport --fields-terminated-by=, test home.cs
@print{} test.home: Records: 4  Deleted: 0  Skipped: 0  Warnings: 0
$ mysql -e 'select * from home' test
@print{} +------+------+------+------+----------+
@print{} | d    | u    | g    | o    | name     |
@print{} +------+------+------+------+----------+
@print{} | d    | rwx  | r-x  | r-x  | CVS      |
@print{} | d    | rwx  | ---  | ---  | Mail     |
@print{} | d    | rwx  | r-x  | r-x  | lilypond |
@print{} | d    | rwx  | r-x  | r-x  | savannah |
@print{} +------+------+------+------+----------+
@end example

But beware of assumptions.
The above invocation of @command{ls} assumes that the owner
and group names are no longer than eight bytes each,
and that no file has size larger than 99999999 bytes.
Otherwise, the byte offset of @samp{57} would need to be larger.
To avoid such problems, suppress output of the owner and group
names with the @option{-g} and @option{-G} options respectively,
and add the @option{-h} option to ensure that the representation
of the size of the file does not exceed the allotted space.
Finally, note that the width of even the date/time field may change,
depending on the current locale.  To avoid that, use an option
like @option{--time-style='+%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'}.

And there's still another problem: if a file has more
than 999 hard links to it, then that will change the alignment.
The morale is that it is hard to use fixed byte offsets into
a line of @command{ls} output.  Use a different tool, like
find, but with @option{-printf} and carefully chosen format strings.

@node The sort command
@unnumberedsec The @command{sort} Command

Next we'll look at the @command{sort} command.  This is one of the most
powerful commands on a Unix-style system; one that you will often find
yourself using when setting up fancy data plumbing.

The @command{sort}
command reads and sorts each file named on the command line.  It then
merges the sorted data and writes it to standard output.  It will read
standard input if no files are given on the command line (thus
making it into a filter).  The sort is based on the character collating
sequence or based on user-supplied ordering criteria.


@node The uniq command
@unnumberedsec The @command{uniq} Command

Finally (at least for now), we'll look at the @command{uniq} program.  When
sorting data, you will often end up with duplicate lines, lines that
are identical.  Usually, all you need is one instance of each line.
This is where @command{uniq} comes in. The @command{uniq} program reads its
standard input, which it expects to be sorted.  It only prints out one
copy of each duplicated line.  It does have several options.  Later on,
we'll use the @option{-c} option, which prints each unique line, preceded
by a count of the number of times that line occurred in the input.


@node Putting the tools together
@unnumberedsec Putting the Tools Together

Now, let's suppose this is a large ISP server system with dozens of users
logged in.  The management wants the system administrator to write a program that will
generate a sorted list of logged in users.  Furthermore, even if a user
is logged in multiple times, his or her name should only show up in the
output once.

The administrator could sit down with the system documentation and write a C
program that did this. It would take perhaps a couple of hundred lines
of code and about two hours to write it, test it, and debug it.
However, knowing the software toolbox, the administrator can instead start out
by generating just a list of logged on users:

@example
$ who | cut -c1-8
@print{} arnold
@print{} miriam
@print{} bill
@print{} arnold
@end example

Next, sort the list:

@example
$ who | cut -c1-8 | sort
@print{} arnold
@print{} arnold
@print{} bill
@print{} miriam
@end example

Finally, run the sorted list through @command{uniq}, to weed out duplicates:

@example
$ who | cut -c1-8 | sort | uniq
@print{} arnold
@print{} bill
@print{} miriam
@end example

The @command{sort} command actually has a @option{-u} option that does what
@command{uniq} does. However, @command{uniq} has other uses for which one
cannot substitute @samp{sort -u}.

The administrator puts this pipeline into a shell script, and makes it available for
all the users on the system (@samp{#} is the system administrator,
or @code{root}, prompt):

@example
# cat > /usr/local/bin/listusers
who | cut -c1-8 | sort | uniq
^D
# chmod +x /usr/local/bin/listusers
@end example

There are four major points to note here.  First, with just four
programs, on one command line, the administrator was able to save about two
hours worth of work.  Furthermore, the shell pipeline is just about as
efficient as the C program would be, and it is much more efficient in
terms of programmer time.  People time is much more expensive than
computer time, and in our modern ``there's never enough time to do
everything'' society, saving two hours of programmer time is no mean
feat.

Second, it is also important to emphasize that with the
@emph{combination} of the tools, it is possible to do a special
purpose job never imagined by the authors of the individual programs.

Third, it is also valuable to build up your pipeline in stages, as we did here.
This allows you to view the data at each stage in the pipeline, which helps
you acquire the confidence that you are indeed using these tools correctly.

Finally, by bundling the pipeline in a shell script, other users can use
your command, without having to remember the fancy plumbing you set up for
them. In terms of how you run them, shell scripts and compiled programs are
indistinguishable.

After the previous warm-up exercise, we'll look at two additional, more
complicated pipelines.  For them, we need to introduce two more tools.

The first is the @command{tr} command, which stands for ``transliterate.''
The @command{tr} command works on a character-by-character basis, changing
characters. Normally it is used for things like mapping upper case to
lower case:

@example
$ echo ThIs ExAmPlE HaS MIXED case! | tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]'
@print{} this example has mixed case!
@end example

There are several options of interest:

@table @code
@item -c
work on the complement of the listed characters, i.e.,
operations apply to characters not in the given set

@item -d
delete characters in the first set from the output

@item -s
squeeze repeated characters in the output into just one character.
@end table

We will be using all three options in a moment.

The other command we'll look at is @command{comm}.  The @command{comm}
command takes two sorted input files as input data, and prints out the
files' lines in three columns.  The output columns are the data lines
unique to the first file, the data lines unique to the second file, and
the data lines that are common to both.  The @option{-1}, @option{-2}, and
@option{-3} command line options @emph{omit} the respective columns. (This is
non-intuitive and takes a little getting used to.)  For example:

@example
$ cat f1
@print{} 11111
@print{} 22222
@print{} 33333
@print{} 44444
$ cat f2
@print{} 00000
@print{} 22222
@print{} 33333
@print{} 55555
$ comm f1 f2
@print{}         00000
@print{} 11111
@print{}                 22222
@print{}                 33333
@print{} 44444
@print{}         55555
@end example

The single dash as a filename tells @command{comm} to read standard input
instead of a regular file.

Now we're ready to build a fancy pipeline.  The first application is a word
frequency counter.  This helps an author determine if he or she is over-using
certain words.

The first step is to change the case of all the letters in our input file
to one case.  ``The'' and ``the'' are the same word when doing counting.

@example
$ tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]' < whats.gnu | ...
@end example

The next step is to get rid of punctuation.  Quoted words and unquoted words
should be treated identically; it's easiest to just get the punctuation out of
the way.

@smallexample
$ tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[A-Za-z0-9_ \012]' | ...
@end smallexample

The second @command{tr} command operates on the complement of the listed
characters, which are all the letters, the digits, the underscore, and
the blank.  The @samp{\012} represents the newline character; it has to
be left alone.  (The @acronym{ASCII} tab character should also be included for
good measure in a production script.)

At this point, we have data consisting of words separated by blank space.
The words only contain alphanumeric characters (and the underscore).  The
next step is break the data apart so that we have one word per line. This
makes the counting operation much easier, as we will see shortly.

@smallexample
$ tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[A-Za-z0-9_ \012]' |
> tr -s '[ ]' '\012' | ...
@end smallexample

This command turns blanks into newlines.  The @option{-s} option squeezes
multiple newline characters in the output into just one.  This helps us
avoid blank lines. (The @samp{>} is the shell's ``secondary prompt.''
This is what the shell prints when it notices you haven't finished
typing in all of a command.)

We now have data consisting of one word per line, no punctuation, all one
case.  We're ready to count each word:

@smallexample
$ tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[A-Za-z0-9_ \012]' |
> tr -s '[ ]' '\012' | sort | uniq -c | ...
@end smallexample

At this point, the data might look something like this:

@example
  60 a
   2 able
   6 about
   1 above
   2 accomplish
   1 acquire
   1 actually
   2 additional
@end example

The output is sorted by word, not by count!  What we want is the most
frequently used words first.  Fortunately, this is easy to accomplish,
with the help of two more @command{sort} options:

@table @code
@item -n
do a numeric sort, not a textual one

@item -r
reverse the order of the sort
@end table

The final pipeline looks like this:

@smallexample
$ tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[A-Za-z0-9_ \012]' |
> tr -s '[ ]' '\012' | sort | uniq -c | sort -nr
@print{}  156 the
@print{}   60 a
@print{}   58 to
@print{}   51 of
@print{}   51 and
@dots{}
@end smallexample

Whew!  That's a lot to digest.  Yet, the same principles apply. With six
commands, on two lines (really one long one split for convenience), we've
created a program that does something interesting and useful, in much
less time than we could have written a C program to do the same thing.

A minor modification to the above pipeline can give us a simple spelling
checker!  To determine if you've spelled a word correctly, all you have to
do is look it up in a dictionary.  If it is not there, then chances are
that your spelling is incorrect.  So, we need a dictionary.
The conventional location for a dictionary is @file{/usr/dict/words}.
On my GNU/Linux system,@footnote{Redhat Linux 6.1, for the November 2000
revision of this article.}
this is a is a sorted, 45,402 word dictionary.

Now, how to compare our file with the dictionary?  As before, we generate
a sorted list of words, one per line:

@smallexample
$ tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[A-Za-z0-9_ \012]' |
> tr -s '[ ]' '\012' | sort -u | ...
@end smallexample

Now, all we need is a list of words that are @emph{not} in the
dictionary.  Here is where the @command{comm} command comes in.

@smallexample
$ tr '[A-Z]' '[a-z]' < whats.gnu | tr -cd '[A-Za-z0-9_ \012]' |
> tr -s '[ ]' '\012' | sort -u |
> comm -23 - /usr/dict/words
@end smallexample

The @option{-2} and @option{-3} options eliminate lines that are only in the
dictionary (the second file), and lines that are in both files.  Lines
only in the first file (standard input, our stream of words), are
words that are not in the dictionary.  These are likely candidates for
spelling errors.  This pipeline was the first cut at a production
spelling checker on Unix.

There are some other tools that deserve brief mention.

@table @command
@item grep
search files for text that matches a regular expression

@item wc
count lines, words, characters

@item tee
a T-fitting for data pipes, copies data to files and to standard output

@item sed
the stream editor, an advanced tool

@item awk
a data manipulation language, another advanced tool
@end table

The software tools philosophy also espoused the following bit of
advice: ``Let someone else do the hard part.''  This means, take
something that gives you most of what you need, and then massage it the
rest of the way until it's in the form that you want.

To summarize:

@enumerate 1
@item
Each program should do one thing well.  No more, no less.

@item
Combining programs with appropriate plumbing leads to results where
the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.  It also leads to novel
uses of programs that the authors might never have imagined.

@item
Programs should never print extraneous header or trailer data, since these
could get sent on down a pipeline. (A point we didn't mention earlier.)

@item
Let someone else do the hard part.

@item
Know your toolbox!  Use each program appropriately. If you don't have an
appropriate tool, build one.
@end enumerate

As of this writing, all the programs we've discussed are available via
anonymous @command{ftp} from: @*
@uref{ftp://gnudist.gnu.org/textutils/textutils-1.22.tar.gz}.  (There may
be more recent versions available now.)

None of what I have presented in this column is new. The Software Tools
philosophy was first introduced in the book @cite{Software Tools}, by
Brian Kernighan and P.J. Plauger (Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-03669-X).
This book showed how to write and use software tools.  It was written in
1976, using a preprocessor for FORTRAN named @command{ratfor} (RATional
FORtran).  At the time, C was not as ubiquitous as it is now; FORTRAN
was.  The last chapter presented a @command{ratfor} to FORTRAN
processor, written in @command{ratfor}. @command{ratfor} looks an awful
lot like C; if you know C, you won't have any problem following the
code.

In 1981, the book was updated and made available as @cite{Software Tools
in Pascal} (Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-10342-7).  The first book is
still in print; the second, alas, is not.  Both books are well worth
reading if you're a programmer.  They certainly made a major change in
how I view programming.

Initially, the programs in both books were available (on 9-track tape)
from Addison-Wesley.  Unfortunately, this is no longer the case,
although the @command{ratfor} versions are available from
@uref{http://cm.bell-labs.come/who/bwk, Brian Kernighan's home page},
and you might be able to find copies of the Pascal versions floating
around the Internet.  For a number of years, there was an active
Software Tools Users Group, whose members had ported the original
@command{ratfor} programs to essentially every computer system with a
FORTRAN compiler.  The popularity of the group waned in the middle 1980s
as Unix began to spread beyond universities.

With the current proliferation of GNU code and other clones of Unix programs,
these programs now receive little attention; modern C versions are
much more efficient and do more than these programs do.  Nevertheless, as
exposition of good programming style, and evangelism for a still-valuable
philosophy, these books are unparalleled, and I recommend them highly.

Acknowledgment: I would like to express my gratitude to Brian Kernighan
of Bell Labs, the original Software Toolsmith, for reviewing this column.

@include doclicense.texi

@node Index
@unnumbered Index

@printindex cp

@shortcontents
@contents
@bye

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