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33 .Nd introduction to devices and device drivers
35 This section contains information related to devices, device drivers
36 and miscellaneous hardware.
37 .Ss The device abstraction
38 Device is a term used mostly for hardware-related stuff that belongs
39 to the system, like disks, printers, or a graphics display with its
41 There are also so-called
43 where a device driver emulates the behaviour of a device in software
44 without any particular underlying hardware.
48 a loophole where the physical memory can be accessed using the regular
49 file access semantics.
51 The device abstraction generally provides a common set of system calls
52 layered on top of them, which are dispatched to the corresponding
53 device driver by the upper layers of the kernel.
55 calls available for devices is chosen from
64 Not all drivers implement all system calls, for example, calling
66 on terminal devices is likely to be not useful at all.
68 Most of the devices in a
70 -like operating system are accessed
75 They are usually located under the directory
77 in the file system hierarchy
81 Note that this could lead to an inconsistent state, where either there
82 are device nodes that do not have a configured driver associated with
83 them, or there may be drivers that have successfully probed for their
84 devices, but cannot be accessed since the corresponding device node is
86 In the first case, any attempt to reference the device
87 through the device node will result in an error, returned by the upper
88 layers of the kernel, usually
90 In the second case, the device node needs to be created before the
91 driver and its device will be usable.
93 Some devices come in two flavors:
97 devices, or to use better terms, buffered and unbuffered
100 The traditional names are reflected by the letters
104 as the file type identification in the output of
106 Buffered devices are being accessed through the buffer cache of the
107 operating system, and they are solely intended to layer a file system
109 They are normally implemented for disks and disk-like
110 devices only and, for historical reasons, for tape devices.
112 Raw devices are available for all drivers, including those that also
113 implement a buffered device.
114 For the latter group of devices, the
115 differentiation is conventionally done by prepending the letter
117 to the path name of the device node, for example
119 denotes the raw device for the first SCSI disk, while
121 is the corresponding device node for the buffered device.
123 Unbuffered devices should be used for all actions that are not related
124 to file system operations, even if the device in question is a disk
126 This includes making backups of entire disk partitions, or
130 (i.e., those used like tapes).
132 Access restrictions to device nodes are usually subject to the regular
133 file permissions of the device node entry, instead of being enforced
134 directly by the drivers in the kernel.
135 .Ss Drivers without device nodes
136 Drivers for network devices do not use device nodes in order to be
138 Their selection is based on other decisions inside the
139 kernel, and instead of calling
141 use of a network device is generally introduced by using the system
144 .Ss Configuring a driver into the kernel
145 For each kernel, there is a configuration file that is used as a base
146 to select the facilities and drivers for that kernel, and to tune
150 for a detailed description of the files involved.
151 The individual manual pages in this section provide a sample line for the
152 configuration file in their synopsis portion.
153 See also the sample config file
154 .Pa /sys/i386/conf/LINT
171 This manual page first appeared in
175 This man page has been written by
177 with initial input by
178 .An David E. O'Brien .