gitfaq.html

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 441 <body class="manpage">
 442 <div id="header">
 443 <h1>gitfaq(7) Manual Page</h1>
 444 <h2 id="_name">NAME</h2>
 445 <div class="sectionbody">
 446 <p>gitfaq - Frequently asked questions about using Git</p>
 447 </div>
 448 </div>
 449 <div id="content">
 450 <div class="sect1">
 451 <h2 id="_synopsis">SYNOPSIS</h2>
 452 <div class="sectionbody">
 453 <div class="paragraph">
 454 <p>gitfaq</p>
 455 </div>
 456 </div>
 457 </div>
 458 <div class="sect1">
 459 <h2 id="_description">DESCRIPTION</h2>
 460 <div class="sectionbody">
 461 <div class="paragraph">
 462 <p>The examples in this FAQ assume a standard POSIX shell, like <code>bash</code> or <code>dash</code>,
 463 and a user, A U Thor, who has the account <code>author</code> on the hosting provider
 464 <code>git.example.org</code>.</p>
 465 </div>
 466 </div>
 467 </div>
 468 <div class="sect1">
 469 <h2 id="_configuration">Configuration</h2>
 470 <div class="sectionbody">
 471 <div id="user-name" class="dlist">
 472 <dl>
 473 <dt class="hdlist1">What should I put in <code>user.name</code>?</dt>
 474 <dd>
 475 <p>You should put your personal name, generally a form using a given name
 476 and family name.  For example, the current maintainer of Git uses "Junio
 477 C Hamano".  This will be the name portion that is stored in every commit
 478 you make.</p>
 479 <div class="paragraph">
 480 <p>This configuration doesn&#8217;t have any effect on authenticating to remote services;
 481 for that, see <code>credential.username</code> in <a href="git-config.html">git-config(1)</a>.</p>
 482 </div>
 483 </dd>
 484 </dl>
 485 </div>
 486 <div id="http-postbuffer" class="dlist">
 487 <dl>
 488 <dt class="hdlist1">What does <code>http.postBuffer</code> really do?</dt>
 489 <dd>
 490 <p>This option changes the size of the buffer that Git uses when pushing
 491 data to a remote over HTTP or HTTPS.  If the data is larger than this
 492 size, libcurl, which handles the HTTP support for Git, will use chunked
 493 transfer encoding since it isn&#8217;t known ahead of time what the size of
 494 the pushed data will be.</p>
 495 <div class="paragraph">
 496 <p>Leaving this value at the default size is fine unless you know that either the
 497 remote server or a proxy in the middle doesn&#8217;t support HTTP/1.1 (which
 498 introduced the chunked transfer encoding) or is known to be broken with chunked
 499 data.  This is often (erroneously) suggested as a solution for generic push
 500 problems, but since almost every server and proxy supports at least HTTP/1.1,
 501 raising this value usually doesn&#8217;t solve most push problems.  A server or proxy
 502 that didn&#8217;t correctly support HTTP/1.1 and chunked transfer encoding wouldn&#8217;t be
 503 that useful on the Internet today, since it would break lots of traffic.</p>
 504 </div>
 505 <div class="paragraph">
 506 <p>Note that increasing this value will increase the memory used on every relevant
 507 push that Git does over HTTP or HTTPS, since the entire buffer is allocated
 508 regardless of whether or not it is all used.  Thus, it&#8217;s best to leave it at the
 509 default unless you are sure you need a different value.</p>
 510 </div>
 511 </dd>
 512 </dl>
 513 </div>
 514 <div id="configure-editor" class="dlist">
 515 <dl>
 516 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I configure a different editor?</dt>
 517 <dd>
 518 <p>If you haven&#8217;t specified an editor specifically for Git, it will by default
 519 use the editor you&#8217;ve configured using the <code>VISUAL</code> or <code>EDITOR</code> environment
 520 variables, or if neither is specified, the system default (which is usually
 521 <code>vi</code>).  Since some people find <code>vi</code> difficult to use or prefer a different
 522 editor, it may be desirable to change the editor used.</p>
 523 <div class="paragraph">
 524 <p>If you want to configure a general editor for most programs which need one, you
 525 can edit your shell configuration (e.g., <code>~/.bashrc</code> or <code>~/.zshenv</code>) to contain
 526 a line setting the <code>EDITOR</code> or <code>VISUAL</code> environment variable to an appropriate
 527 value.  For example, if you prefer the editor <code>nano</code>, then you could write the
 528 following:</p>
 529 </div>
 530 <div class="listingblock">
 531 <div class="content">
 532 <pre>export VISUAL=nano</pre>
 533 </div>
 534 </div>
 535 <div class="paragraph">
 536 <p>If you want to configure an editor specifically for Git, you can either set the
 537 <code>core.editor</code> configuration value or the <code>GIT_EDITOR</code> environment variable.  You
 538 can see <a href="git-var.html">git-var(1)</a> for details on the order in which these options are
 539 consulted.</p>
 540 </div>
 541 <div class="paragraph">
 542 <p>Note that in all cases, the editor value will be passed to the shell, so any
 543 arguments containing spaces should be appropriately quoted.  Additionally, if
 544 your editor normally detaches from the terminal when invoked, you should specify
 545 it with an argument that makes it not do that, or else Git will not see any
 546 changes.  An example of a configuration addressing both of these issues on
 547 Windows would be the configuration "C:\Program <code>Files</code>\Vim\gvim.<code>exe</code>" <code>--nofork</code>,
 548 which quotes the filename with spaces and specifies the <code>--nofork</code> option to
 549 avoid backgrounding the process.</p>
 550 </div>
 551 </dd>
 552 </dl>
 553 </div>
 554 </div>
 555 </div>
 556 <div class="sect1">
 557 <h2 id="_credentials">Credentials</h2>
 558 <div class="sectionbody">
 559 <div id="http-credentials" class="dlist">
 560 <dl>
 561 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I specify my credentials when pushing over HTTP?</dt>
 562 <dd>
 563 <p>The easiest way to do this is to use a credential helper via the
 564 <code>credential.helper</code> configuration.  Most systems provide a standard
 565 choice to integrate with the system credential manager.  For example,
 566 Git for Windows provides the <code>wincred</code> credential manager, macOS has the
 567 <code>osxkeychain</code> credential manager, and Unix systems with a standard
 568 desktop environment can use the <code>libsecret</code> credential manager.  All of
 569 these store credentials in an encrypted store to keep your passwords or
 570 tokens secure.</p>
 571 <div class="paragraph">
 572 <p>In addition, you can use the <code>store</code> credential manager which stores in a file
 573 in your home directory, or the <code>cache</code> credential manager, which does not
 574 permanently store your credentials, but does prevent you from being prompted for
 575 them for a certain period of time.</p>
 576 </div>
 577 <div class="paragraph">
 578 <p>You can also just enter your password when prompted.  While it is possible to
 579 place the password (which must be percent-encoded) in the URL, this is not
 580 particularly secure and can lead to accidental exposure of credentials, so it is
 581 not recommended.</p>
 582 </div>
 583 </dd>
 584 </dl>
 585 </div>
 586 <div id="http-credentials-environment" class="dlist">
 587 <dl>
 588 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I read a password or token from an environment variable?</dt>
 589 <dd>
 590 <p>The <code>credential.helper</code> configuration option can also take an arbitrary
 591 shell command that produces the credential protocol on standard output.
 592 This is useful when passing credentials into a container, for example.</p>
 593 <div class="paragraph">
 594 <p>Such a shell command can be specified by starting the option value with an
 595 exclamation point.  If your password or token were stored in the <code>GIT_TOKEN</code>,
 596 you could run the following command to set your credential helper:</p>
 597 </div>
 598 <div class="listingblock">
 599 <div class="content">
 600 <pre>$ git config credential.helper \
 601         '!f() { echo username=author; echo "password=$GIT_TOKEN"; };f'</pre>
 602 </div>
 603 </div>
 604 </dd>
 605 </dl>
 606 </div>
 607 <div id="http-reset-credentials" class="dlist">
 608 <dl>
 609 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I change the password or token I&#8217;ve saved in my credential manager?</dt>
 610 <dd>
 611 <p>Usually, if the password or token is invalid, Git will erase it and
 612 prompt for a new one.  However, there are times when this doesn&#8217;t always
 613 happen.  To change the password or token, you can erase the existing
 614 credentials and then Git will prompt for new ones.  To erase
 615 credentials, use a syntax like the following (substituting your username
 616 and the hostname):</p>
 617 <div class="listingblock">
 618 <div class="content">
 619 <pre>$ echo url=https://author@git.example.org | git credential reject</pre>
 620 </div>
 621 </div>
 622 </dd>
 623 </dl>
 624 </div>
 625 <div id="multiple-accounts-http" class="dlist">
 626 <dl>
 627 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I use multiple accounts with the same hosting provider using HTTP?</dt>
 628 <dd>
 629 <p>Usually the easiest way to distinguish between these accounts is to use
 630 the username in the URL.  For example, if you have the accounts <code>author</code>
 631 and <code>committer</code> on <code>git.example.org</code>, you can use the URLs
 632 <a href="https://author@git.example.org/org1/project1.git" class="bare">https://author@git.example.org/org1/project1.git</a> and
 633 <a href="https://committer@git.example.org/org2/project2.git" class="bare">https://committer@git.example.org/org2/project2.git</a>.  This way, when you
 634 use a credential helper, it will automatically try to look up the
 635 correct credentials for your account.  If you already have a remote set
 636 up, you can change the URL with something like <code>git</code> <code>remote</code> <code>set-url</code>
 637 <code>origin</code> <code>https://author@git.example.org/org1/project1.git</code> (see
 638 <a href="git-remote.html">git-remote(1)</a> for details).</p>
 639 </dd>
 640 </dl>
 641 </div>
 642 <div id="multiple-accounts-ssh" class="dlist">
 643 <dl>
 644 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I use multiple accounts with the same hosting provider using SSH?</dt>
 645 <dd>
 646 <p>With most hosting providers that support SSH, a single key pair uniquely
 647 identifies a user.  Therefore, to use multiple accounts, it&#8217;s necessary
 648 to create a key pair for each account.  If you&#8217;re using a reasonably
 649 modern OpenSSH version, you can create a new key pair with something
 650 like <code>ssh-keygen</code> <code>-t</code> <code>ed25519</code> <code>-f</code> <code>~/.ssh/id_committer</code>.  You can then
 651 register the public key (in this case, <code>~/.ssh/id_committer.pub</code>; note
 652 the .<code>pub</code>) with the hosting provider.</p>
 653 <div class="paragraph">
 654 <p>Most hosting providers use a single SSH account for pushing; that is, all users
 655 push to the <code>git</code> account (e.g., <code>git@git.example.org</code>).  If that&#8217;s the case for
 656 your provider, you can set up multiple aliases in SSH to make it clear which key
 657 pair to use.  For example, you could write something like the following in
 658 <code>~/.ssh/config</code>, substituting the proper private key file:</p>
 659 </div>
 660 <div class="listingblock">
 661 <div class="content">
 662 <pre># This is the account for author on git.example.org.
 663 Host example_author
 664         HostName git.example.org
 665         User git
 666         # This is the key pair registered for author with git.example.org.
 667         IdentityFile ~/.ssh/id_author
 668         IdentitiesOnly yes
 669 # This is the account for committer on git.example.org.
 670 Host example_committer
 671         HostName git.example.org
 672         User git
 673         # This is the key pair registered for committer with git.example.org.
 674         IdentityFile ~/.ssh/id_committer
 675         IdentitiesOnly yes</pre>
 676 </div>
 677 </div>
 678 <div class="paragraph">
 679 <p>Then, you can adjust your push URL to use <code>git@example_author</code> or
 680 <code>git@example_committer</code> instead of <code>git@example.org</code> (e.g., <code>git</code> <code>remote</code> <code>set-url</code>
 681 <code>git@example_author:org1/project1.git</code>).</p>
 682 </div>
 683 </dd>
 684 </dl>
 685 </div>
 686 </div>
 687 </div>
 688 <div class="sect1">
 689 <h2 id="_transfers">Transfers</h2>
 690 <div class="sectionbody">
 691 <div id="sync-working-tree" class="dlist">
 692 <dl>
 693 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I sync a working tree across systems?</dt>
 694 <dd>
 695 <p>First, decide whether you want to do this at all.  Git works best when you
 696 push or pull your work using the typical <code>git</code> <code>push</code> and <code>git</code> <code>fetch</code> commands
 697 and isn&#8217;t designed to share a working tree across systems.  This is
 698 potentially risky and in some cases can cause repository corruption or data
 699 loss.</p>
 700 <div class="paragraph">
 701 <p>Usually, doing so will cause <code>git</code> <code>status</code> to need to re-read every file in the
 702 working tree.  Additionally, Git&#8217;s security model does not permit sharing a
 703 working tree across untrusted users, so it is only safe to sync a working tree
 704 if it will only be used by a single user across all machines.</p>
 705 </div>
 706 <div class="paragraph">
 707 <p>It is important not to use a cloud syncing service to sync any portion of a Git
 708 repository, since this can cause corruption, such as missing objects, changed
 709 or added files, broken refs, and a wide variety of other problems.  These
 710 services tend to sync file by file on a continuous basis and don&#8217;t understand
 711 the structure of a Git repository.  This is especially bad if they sync the
 712 repository in the middle of it being updated, since that is very likely to
 713 cause incomplete or partial updates and therefore data loss.</p>
 714 </div>
 715 <div class="paragraph">
 716 <p>An example of the kind of corruption that can occur is conflicts over the state
 717 of refs, such that both sides end up with different commits on a branch that
 718 the other doesn&#8217;t have.  This can result in important objects becoming
 719 unreferenced and possibly pruned by <code>git</code> <code>gc</code>, causing data loss.</p>
 720 </div>
 721 <div class="paragraph">
 722 <p>Therefore, it&#8217;s better to push your work to either the other system or a central
 723 server using the normal push and pull mechanism.  However, this doesn&#8217;t always
 724 preserve important data, like stashes, so some people prefer to share a working
 725 tree across systems.</p>
 726 </div>
 727 <div class="paragraph">
 728 <p>If you do this, the recommended approach is to use <code>rsync</code> <code>-a</code> <code>--delete-after</code>
 729 (ideally with an encrypted connection such as with <code>ssh</code>) on the root of
 730 repository.  You should ensure several things when you do this:</p>
 731 </div>
 732 <div class="ulist">
 733 <ul>
 734 <li>
 735 <p>If you have additional worktrees or a separate Git directory, they must be
 736 synced at the same time as the main working tree and repository.</p>
 737 </li>
 738 <li>
 739 <p>You are comfortable with the destination directory being an exact copy of the
 740 source directory, <em>deleting any data that is already there</em>.</p>
 741 </li>
 742 <li>
 743 <p>The repository (including all worktrees and the Git directory) is in a
 744 quiescent state for the duration of the transfer (that is, no operations of
 745 any sort are taking place on it, including background operations like <code>git</code>
 746 <code>gc</code> and operations invoked by your editor).</p>
 747 <div class="paragraph">
 748 <p>Be aware that even with these recommendations, syncing in this way has some risk
 749 since it bypasses Git&#8217;s normal integrity checking for repositories, so having
 750 backups is advised.  You may also wish to do a <code>git</code> <code>fsck</code> to verify the
 751 integrity of your data on the destination system after syncing.</p>
 752 </div>
 753 </li>
 754 </ul>
 755 </div>
 756 </dd>
 757 </dl>
 758 </div>
 759 </div>
 760 </div>
 761 <div class="sect1">
 762 <h2 id="_common_issues">Common Issues</h2>
 763 <div class="sectionbody">
 764 <div id="last-commit-amend" class="dlist">
 765 <dl>
 766 <dt class="hdlist1">I&#8217;ve made a mistake in the last commit.  How do I change it?</dt>
 767 <dd>
 768 <p>You can make the appropriate change to your working tree, run <code>git</code> <code>add</code>
 769 <em>&lt;file&gt;</em> or <code>git</code> <code>rm</code> <em>&lt;file&gt;</em>, as appropriate, to stage it, and then <code>git</code>
 770 <code>commit</code> <code>--amend</code>.  Your change will be included in the commit, and you&#8217;ll
 771 be prompted to edit the commit message again; if you wish to use the
 772 original message verbatim, you can use the <code>--no-edit</code> option to <code>git</code>
 773 <code>commit</code> in addition, or just save and quit when your editor opens.</p>
 774 </dd>
 775 </dl>
 776 </div>
 777 <div id="undo-previous-change" class="dlist">
 778 <dl>
 779 <dt class="hdlist1">I&#8217;ve made a change with a bug and it&#8217;s been included in the main branch.  How should I undo it?</dt>
 780 <dd>
 781 <p>The usual way to deal with this is to use <code>git</code> <code>revert</code>.  This preserves
 782 the history that the original change was made and was a valuable
 783 contribution, but also introduces a new commit that undoes those changes
 784 because the original had a problem.  The commit message of the revert
 785 indicates the commit which was reverted and is usually edited to include
 786 an explanation as to why the revert was made.</p>
 787 </dd>
 788 </dl>
 789 </div>
 790 <div id="ignore-tracked-files" class="dlist">
 791 <dl>
 792 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I ignore changes to a tracked file?</dt>
 793 <dd>
 794 <p>Git doesn&#8217;t provide a way to do this.  The reason is that if Git needs
 795 to overwrite this file, such as during a checkout, it doesn&#8217;t know
 796 whether the changes to the file are precious and should be kept, or
 797 whether they are irrelevant and can safely be destroyed.  Therefore, it
 798 has to take the safe route and always preserve them.</p>
 799 <div class="paragraph">
 800 <p>It&#8217;s tempting to try to use certain features of <code>git</code> <code>update-index</code>, namely the
 801 assume-unchanged and skip-worktree bits, but these don&#8217;t work properly for this
 802 purpose and shouldn&#8217;t be used this way.</p>
 803 </div>
 804 <div class="paragraph">
 805 <p>If your goal is to modify a configuration file, it can often be helpful to have
 806 a file checked into the repository which is a template or set of defaults which
 807 can then be copied alongside and modified as appropriate.  This second, modified
 808 file is usually ignored to prevent accidentally committing it.</p>
 809 </div>
 810 </dd>
 811 </dl>
 812 </div>
 813 <div id="files-in-gitignore-are-tracked" class="dlist">
 814 <dl>
 815 <dt class="hdlist1">I asked Git to ignore various files, yet they are still tracked</dt>
 816 <dd>
 817 <p>A <code>gitignore</code> file ensures that certain file(s) which are not
 818 tracked by Git remain untracked.  However, sometimes particular
 819 file(s) may have been tracked before adding them into the
 820 .<code>gitignore</code>, hence they still remain tracked.  To untrack and
 821 ignore files/patterns, use <code>git</code> <code>rm</code> <code>--cached</code> &lt;file/pattern&gt;
 822 and add a pattern to .<code>gitignore</code> that matches the &lt;file&gt;.
 823 See <a href="gitignore.html">gitignore(5)</a> for details.</p>
 824 </dd>
 825 </dl>
 826 </div>
 827 <div id="fetching-and-pulling" class="dlist">
 828 <dl>
 829 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I know if I want to do a fetch or a pull?</dt>
 830 <dd>
 831 <p>A fetch stores a copy of the latest changes from the remote
 832 repository, without modifying the working tree or current branch.
 833 You can then at your leisure inspect, merge, rebase on top of, or
 834 ignore the upstream changes.  A pull consists of a fetch followed
 835 immediately by either a merge or rebase.  See <a href="git-pull.html">git-pull(1)</a>.</p>
 836 </dd>
 837 </dl>
 838 </div>
 839 <div id="proxy" class="dlist">
 840 <dl>
 841 <dt class="hdlist1">Can I use a proxy with Git?</dt>
 842 <dd>
 843 <p>Yes, Git supports the use of proxies.  Git honors the standard <code>http_proxy</code>,
 844 <code>https_proxy</code>, and <code>no_proxy</code> environment variables commonly used on Unix, and
 845 it also can be configured with <code>http.proxy</code> and similar options for HTTPS (see
 846 <a href="git-config.html">git-config(1)</a>).  The <code>http.proxy</code> and related options can be
 847 customized on a per-URL pattern basis.  In addition, Git can in theory
 848 function normally with transparent proxies that exist on the network.</p>
 849 <div class="paragraph">
 850 <p>For SSH, Git can support a proxy using OpenSSH&#8217;s <code>ProxyCommand</code>. Commonly used
 851 tools include <code>netcat</code> and <code>socat</code>.  However, they must be configured not to
 852 exit when seeing EOF on standard input, which usually means that <code>netcat</code> will
 853 require <code>-q</code> and <code>socat</code> will require a timeout with something like <code>-t</code> <code>10</code>.
 854 This is required because the way the Git SSH server knows that no more requests
 855 will be made is an EOF on standard input, but when that happens, the server may
 856 not have yet processed the final request, so dropping the connection at that
 857 point would interrupt that request.</p>
 858 </div>
 859 <div class="paragraph">
 860 <p>An example configuration entry in <code>~/.ssh/config</code> with an HTTP proxy might look
 861 like this:</p>
 862 </div>
 863 <div class="listingblock">
 864 <div class="content">
 865 <pre>Host git.example.org
 866     User git
 867     ProxyCommand socat -t 10 - PROXY:proxy.example.org:%h:%p,proxyport=8080</pre>
 868 </div>
 869 </div>
 870 <div class="paragraph">
 871 <p>Note that in all cases, for Git to work properly, the proxy must be completely
 872 transparent.  The proxy cannot modify, tamper with, or buffer the connection in
 873 any way, or Git will almost certainly fail to work.  Note that many proxies,
 874 including many TLS middleboxes, Windows antivirus and firewall programs other
 875 than Windows Defender and Windows Firewall, and filtering proxies fail to meet
 876 this standard, and as a result end up breaking Git.  Because of the many
 877 reports of problems and their poor security history, we recommend against the
 878 use of these classes of software and devices.</p>
 879 </div>
 880 </dd>
 881 </dl>
 882 </div>
 883 </div>
 884 </div>
 885 <div class="sect1">
 886 <h2 id="_merging_and_rebasing">Merging and Rebasing</h2>
 887 <div class="sectionbody">
 888 <div id="long-running-squash-merge" class="dlist">
 889 <dl>
 890 <dt class="hdlist1">What kinds of problems can occur when merging long-lived branches with squash merges?</dt>
 891 <dd>
 892 <p>In general, there are a variety of problems that can occur when using squash
 893 merges to merge two branches multiple times.  These can include seeing extra
 894 commits in <code>git</code> <code>log</code> output, with a GUI, or when using the ... notation to
 895 express a range, as well as the possibility of needing to re-resolve conflicts
 896 again and again.</p>
 897 <div class="paragraph">
 898 <p>When Git does a normal merge between two branches, it considers exactly three
 899 points: the two branches and a third commit, called the <em>merge base</em>, which is
 900 usually the common ancestor of the commits.  The result of the merge is the sum
 901 of the changes between the merge base and each head.  When you merge two
 902 branches with a regular merge commit, this results in a new commit which will
 903 end up as a merge base when they&#8217;re merged again, because there is now a new
 904 common ancestor.  Git doesn&#8217;t have to consider changes that occurred before the
 905 merge base, so you don&#8217;t have to re-resolve any conflicts you resolved before.</p>
 906 </div>
 907 <div class="paragraph">
 908 <p>When you perform a squash merge, a merge commit isn&#8217;t created; instead, the
 909 changes from one side are applied as a regular commit to the other side.  This
 910 means that the merge base for these branches won&#8217;t have changed, and so when Git
 911 goes to perform its next merge, it considers all of the changes that it
 912 considered the last time plus the new changes.  That means any conflicts may
 913 need to be re-resolved.  Similarly, anything using the ... notation in <code>git</code>
 914 <code>diff</code>, <code>git</code> <code>log</code>, or a GUI will result in showing all of the changes since the
 915 original merge base.</p>
 916 </div>
 917 <div class="paragraph">
 918 <p>As a consequence, if you want to merge two long-lived branches repeatedly, it&#8217;s
 919 best to always use a regular merge commit.</p>
 920 </div>
 921 </dd>
 922 </dl>
 923 </div>
 924 <div id="merge-two-revert-one" class="dlist">
 925 <dl>
 926 <dt class="hdlist1">If I make a change on two branches but revert it on one, why does the merge of those branches include the change?</dt>
 927 <dd>
 928 <p>By default, when Git does a merge, it uses a strategy called the <code>ort</code>
 929 strategy, which does a fancy three-way merge.  In such a case, when Git
 930 performs the merge, it considers exactly three points: the two heads and a
 931 third point, called the <em>merge base</em>, which is usually the common ancestor of
 932 those commits.  Git does not consider the history or the individual commits
 933 that have happened on those branches at all.</p>
 934 <div class="paragraph">
 935 <p>As a result, if both sides have a change and one side has reverted that change,
 936 the result is to include the change.  This is because the code has changed on
 937 one side and there is no net change on the other, and in this scenario, Git
 938 adopts the change.</p>
 939 </div>
 940 <div class="paragraph">
 941 <p>If this is a problem for you, you can do a rebase instead, rebasing the branch
 942 with the revert onto the other branch.  A rebase in this scenario will revert
 943 the change, because a rebase applies each individual commit, including the
 944 revert.  Note that rebases rewrite history, so you should avoid rebasing
 945 published branches unless you&#8217;re sure you&#8217;re comfortable with that.  See the
 946 NOTES section in <a href="git-rebase.html">git-rebase(1)</a> for more details.</p>
 947 </div>
 948 </dd>
 949 </dl>
 950 </div>
 951 </div>
 952 </div>
 953 <div class="sect1">
 954 <h2 id="_hooks">Hooks</h2>
 955 <div class="sectionbody">
 956 <div id="restrict-with-hooks" class="dlist">
 957 <dl>
 958 <dt class="hdlist1">How do I use hooks to prevent users from making certain changes?</dt>
 959 <dd>
 960 <p>The only safe place to make these changes is on the remote repository
 961 (i.e., the Git server), usually in the <code>pre-receive</code> hook or in a
 962 continuous integration (CI) system.  These are the locations in which
 963 policy can be enforced effectively.</p>
 964 <div class="paragraph">
 965 <p>It&#8217;s common to try to use <code>pre-commit</code> hooks (or, for commit messages,
 966 <code>commit-msg</code> hooks) to check these things, which is great if you&#8217;re working as a
 967 solo developer and want the tooling to help you.  However, using hooks on a
 968 developer machine is not effective as a policy control because a user can bypass
 969 these hooks with <code>--no-verify</code> without being noticed (among various other ways).
 970 Git assumes that the user is in control of their local repositories and doesn&#8217;t
 971 try to prevent this or tattle on the user.</p>
 972 </div>
 973 <div class="paragraph">
 974 <p>In addition, some advanced users find <code>pre-commit</code> hooks to be an impediment to
 975 workflows that use temporary commits to stage work in progress or that create
 976 fixup commits, so it&#8217;s better to push these kinds of checks to the server
 977 anyway.</p>
 978 </div>
 979 </dd>
 980 </dl>
 981 </div>
 982 </div>
 983 </div>
 984 <div class="sect1">
 985 <h2 id="_cross_platform_issues">Cross-Platform Issues</h2>
 986 <div class="sectionbody">
 987 <div id="windows-text-binary" class="dlist">
 988 <dl>
 989 <dt class="hdlist1">I&#8217;m on Windows and my text files are detected as binary.</dt>
 990 <dd>
 991 <p>Git works best when you store text files as UTF-8.  Many programs on
 992 Windows support UTF-8, but some do not and only use the little-endian
 993 UTF-16 format, which Git detects as binary.  If you can&#8217;t use UTF-8 with
 994 your programs, you can specify a working tree encoding that indicates
 995 which encoding your files should be checked out with, while still
 996 storing these files as UTF-8 in the repository.  This allows tools like
 997 <a href="git-diff.html">git-diff(1)</a> to work as expected, while still allowing your tools
 998 to work.</p>
 999 <div class="paragraph">
1000 <p>To do so, you can specify a <a href="gitattributes.html">gitattributes(5)</a> pattern with the
1001 <code>working-tree-encoding</code> attribute.  For example, the following pattern sets all
1002 C files to use UTF-16LE-BOM, which is a common encoding on Windows:</p>
1003 </div>
1004 <div class="listingblock">
1005 <div class="content">
1006 <pre>*.c     working-tree-encoding=UTF-16LE-BOM</pre>
1007 </div>
1008 </div>
1009 <div class="paragraph">
1010 <p>You will need to run <code>git</code> <code>add</code> <code>--renormalize</code> to have this take effect.  Note
1011 that if you are making these changes on a project that is used across platforms,
1012 you&#8217;ll probably want to make it in a per-user configuration file or in the one
1013 in <code>$GIT_DIR/info/attributes</code>, since making it in a .<code>gitattributes</code> file in the
1014 repository will apply to all users of the repository.</p>
1015 </div>
1016 <div class="paragraph">
1017 <p>See the following entry for information about normalizing line endings as well,
1018 and see <a href="gitattributes.html">gitattributes(5)</a> for more information about attribute files.</p>
1019 </div>
1020 </dd>
1021 </dl>
1022 </div>
1023 <div id="windows-diff-control-m" class="dlist">
1024 <dl>
1025 <dt class="hdlist1">I&#8217;m on Windows and git diff shows my files as having a <code>^M</code> at the end.</dt>
1026 <dd>
1027 <p>By default, Git expects files to be stored with Unix line endings.  As such,
1028 the carriage return (<code>^M</code>) that is part of a Windows line ending is shown
1029 because it is considered to be trailing whitespace.  Git defaults to showing
1030 trailing whitespace only on new lines, not existing ones.</p>
1031 <div class="paragraph">
1032 <p>You can store the files in the repository with Unix line endings and convert
1033 them automatically to your platform&#8217;s line endings.  To do that, set the
1034 configuration option <code>core.eol</code> to <code>native</code> and see
1035 <a href="#recommended-storage-settings">the question on recommended storage settings</a>
1036 for information about how to configure files as text or binary.</p>
1037 </div>
1038 <div class="paragraph">
1039 <p>You can also control this behavior with the <code>core.whitespace</code> setting if you
1040 don&#8217;t wish to remove the carriage returns from your line endings.</p>
1041 </div>
1042 </dd>
1043 </dl>
1044 </div>
1045 <div id="always-modified-files-case" class="dlist">
1046 <dl>
1047 <dt class="hdlist1">Why do I have a file that&#8217;s always modified?</dt>
1048 <dd>
1049 <p>Internally, Git always stores file names as sequences of bytes and doesn&#8217;t
1050 perform any encoding or case folding.  However, Windows and macOS by default
1051 both perform case folding on file names.  As a result, it&#8217;s possible to end up
1052 with multiple files or directories whose names differ only in case.  Git can
1053 handle this just fine, but the file system can store only one of these files,
1054 so when Git reads the other file to see its contents, it looks modified.</p>
1055 <div class="paragraph">
1056 <p>It&#8217;s best to remove one of the files such that you only have one file.  You can
1057 do this with commands like the following (assuming two files <code>AFile.txt</code> and
1058 <code>afile.txt</code>) on an otherwise clean working tree:</p>
1059 </div>
1060 <div class="listingblock">
1061 <div class="content">
1062 <pre>$ git rm --cached AFile.txt
1063 $ git commit -m 'Remove files conflicting in case'
1064 $ git checkout .</pre>
1065 </div>
1066 </div>
1067 <div class="paragraph">
1068 <p>This avoids touching the disk, but removes the additional file.  Your project
1069 may prefer to adopt a naming convention, such as all-lowercase names, to avoid
1070 this problem from occurring again; such a convention can be checked using a
1071 <code>pre-receive</code> hook or as part of a continuous integration (CI) system.</p>
1072 </div>
1073 <div class="paragraph">
1074 <p>It is also possible for perpetually modified files to occur on any platform if a
1075 smudge or clean filter is in use on your system but a file was previously
1076 committed without running the smudge or clean filter.  To fix this, run the
1077 following on an otherwise clean working tree:</p>
1078 </div>
1079 <div class="listingblock">
1080 <div class="content">
1081 <pre>$ git add --renormalize .</pre>
1082 </div>
1083 </div>
1084 </dd>
1085 </dl>
1086 </div>
1087 <div id="recommended-storage-settings" class="dlist">
1088 <dl>
1089 <dt class="hdlist1">What&#8217;s the recommended way to store files in Git?</dt>
1090 <dd>
1091 <p>While Git can store and handle any file of any type, there are some
1092 settings that work better than others.  In general, we recommend that
1093 text files be stored in UTF-8 without a byte-order mark (BOM) with LF
1094 (Unix-style) endings.  We also recommend the use of UTF-8 (again,
1095 without BOM) in commit messages.  These are the settings that work best
1096 across platforms and with tools such as <code>git</code> <code>diff</code> and <code>git</code> <code>merge</code>.</p>
1097 <div class="paragraph">
1098 <p>Additionally, if you have a choice between storage formats that are text based
1099 or non-text based, we recommend storing files in the text format and, if
1100 necessary, transforming them into the other format.  For example, a text-based
1101 SQL dump with one record per line will work much better for diffing and merging
1102 than an actual database file.  Similarly, text-based formats such as Markdown
1103 and AsciiDoc will work better than binary formats such as Microsoft Word and
1104 PDF.</p>
1105 </div>
1106 <div class="paragraph">
1107 <p>Similarly, storing binary dependencies (e.g., shared libraries or JAR files) or
1108 build products in the repository is generally not recommended.  Dependencies and
1109 build products are best stored on an artifact or package server with only
1110 references, URLs, and hashes stored in the repository.</p>
1111 </div>
1112 <div class="paragraph">
1113 <p>We also recommend setting a <a href="gitattributes.html">gitattributes(5)</a> file to explicitly mark
1114 which files are text and which are binary.  If you want Git to guess, you can
1115 set the attribute <code>text=auto</code>.</p>
1116 </div>
1117 <div class="paragraph">
1118 <p>With text files, Git will generally ensure that LF endings are used in the
1119 repository.  The <code>core.autocrlf</code> and <code>core.eol</code> configuration variables specify
1120 what line-ending convention is followed when any text file is checked out.  You
1121 can also use the <code>eol</code> attribute (e.g., <code>eol=crlf</code>) to override which files get
1122 what line-ending treatment.</p>
1123 </div>
1124 <div class="paragraph">
1125 <p>For example, generally shell files must have LF endings and batch files must
1126 have CRLF endings, so the following might be appropriate in some projects:</p>
1127 </div>
1128 <div class="listingblock">
1129 <div class="content">
1130 <pre># By default, guess.
1131 *       text=auto
1132 # Mark all C files as text.
1133 *.c     text
1134 # Ensure all shell files have LF endings and all batch files have CRLF
1135 # endings in the working tree and both have LF in the repo.
1136 *.sh text eol=lf
1137 *.bat text eol=crlf
1138 # Mark all JPEG files as binary.
1139 *.jpg   binary</pre>
1140 </div>
1141 </div>
1142 <div class="paragraph">
1143 <p>These settings help tools pick the right format for output such as patches and
1144 result in files being checked out in the appropriate line ending for the
1145 platform.</p>
1146 </div>
1147 </dd>
1148 </dl>
1149 </div>
1150 </div>
1151 </div>
1152 <div class="sect1">
1153 <h2 id="_git">GIT</h2>
1154 <div class="sectionbody">
1155 <div class="paragraph">
1156 <p>Part of the <a href="git.html">git(1)</a> suite</p>
1157 </div>
1158 </div>
1159 </div>
1160 </div>
1161 <div id="footer">
1162 <div id="footer-text">
1163 Last updated 2024-07-16 15:50:24 -0700
1164 </div>
1165 </div>
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