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 440 </head>
 441 <body class="manpage">
 442 <div id="header">
 443 <h1>gittutorial(7) Manual Page</h1>
 444 <h2 id="_name">NAME</h2>
 445 <div class="sectionbody">
 446 <p>gittutorial - A tutorial introduction to Git</p>
 447 </div>
 448 </div>
 449 <div id="content">
 450 <div class="sect1">
 451 <h2 id="_synopsis">SYNOPSIS</h2>
 452 <div class="sectionbody">
 453 <div class="verseblock">
 454 <pre class="content">git *</pre>
 455 </div>
 456 </div>
 457 </div>
 458 <div class="sect1">
 459 <h2 id="_description">DESCRIPTION</h2>
 460 <div class="sectionbody">
 461 <div class="paragraph">
 462 <p>This tutorial explains how to import a new project into Git, make
 463 changes to it, and share changes with other developers.</p>
 464 </div>
 465 <div class="paragraph">
 466 <p>If you are instead primarily interested in using Git to fetch a project,
 467 for example, to test the latest version, you may prefer to start with
 468 the first two chapters of <a href="user-manual.html">The Git User&#8217;s Manual</a>.</p>
 469 </div>
 470 <div class="paragraph">
 471 <p>First, note that you can get documentation for a command such as
 472 <code>git log --graph</code> with:</p>
 473 </div>
 474 <div class="listingblock">
 475 <div class="content">
 476 <pre>$ man git-log</pre>
 477 </div>
 478 </div>
 479 <div class="paragraph">
 480 <p>or:</p>
 481 </div>
 482 <div class="listingblock">
 483 <div class="content">
 484 <pre>$ git help log</pre>
 485 </div>
 486 </div>
 487 <div class="paragraph">
 488 <p>With the latter, you can use the manual viewer of your choice; see
 489 <a href="git-help.html">git-help(1)</a> for more information.</p>
 490 </div>
 491 <div class="paragraph">
 492 <p>It is a good idea to introduce yourself to Git with your name and
 493 public email address before doing any operation.  The easiest
 494 way to do so is:</p>
 495 </div>
 496 <div class="listingblock">
 497 <div class="content">
 498 <pre>$ git config --global user.name "Your Name Comes Here"
 499 $ git config --global user.email you@yourdomain.example.com</pre>
 500 </div>
 501 </div>
 502 </div>
 503 </div>
 504 <div class="sect1">
 505 <h2 id="_importing_a_new_project">Importing a new project</h2>
 506 <div class="sectionbody">
 507 <div class="paragraph">
 508 <p>Assume you have a tarball <code>project.tar.gz</code> with your initial work.  You
 509 can place it under Git revision control as follows.</p>
 510 </div>
 511 <div class="listingblock">
 512 <div class="content">
 513 <pre>$ tar xzf project.tar.gz
 514 $ cd project
 515 $ git init</pre>
 516 </div>
 517 </div>
 518 <div class="paragraph">
 519 <p>Git will reply</p>
 520 </div>
 521 <div class="listingblock">
 522 <div class="content">
 523 <pre>Initialized empty Git repository in .git/</pre>
 524 </div>
 525 </div>
 526 <div class="paragraph">
 527 <p>You&#8217;ve now initialized the working directory&#8212;&#8203;you may notice a new
 528 directory created, named <code>.git</code>.</p>
 529 </div>
 530 <div class="paragraph">
 531 <p>Next, tell Git to take a snapshot of the contents of all files under the
 532 current directory (note the <code>.</code>), with <code>git add</code>:</p>
 533 </div>
 534 <div class="listingblock">
 535 <div class="content">
 536 <pre>$ git add .</pre>
 537 </div>
 538 </div>
 539 <div class="paragraph">
 540 <p>This snapshot is now stored in a temporary staging area which Git calls
 541 the "index".  You can permanently store the contents of the index in the
 542 repository with <code>git commit</code>:</p>
 543 </div>
 544 <div class="listingblock">
 545 <div class="content">
 546 <pre>$ git commit</pre>
 547 </div>
 548 </div>
 549 <div class="paragraph">
 550 <p>This will prompt you for a commit message.  You&#8217;ve now stored the first
 551 version of your project in Git.</p>
 552 </div>
 553 </div>
 554 </div>
 555 <div class="sect1">
 556 <h2 id="_making_changes">Making changes</h2>
 557 <div class="sectionbody">
 558 <div class="paragraph">
 559 <p>Modify some files, then add their updated contents to the index:</p>
 560 </div>
 561 <div class="listingblock">
 562 <div class="content">
 563 <pre>$ git add file1 file2 file3</pre>
 564 </div>
 565 </div>
 566 <div class="paragraph">
 567 <p>You are now ready to commit.  You can see what is about to be committed
 568 using <code>git diff</code> with the <code>--cached</code> option:</p>
 569 </div>
 570 <div class="listingblock">
 571 <div class="content">
 572 <pre>$ git diff --cached</pre>
 573 </div>
 574 </div>
 575 <div class="paragraph">
 576 <p>(Without <code>--cached</code>, <code>git diff</code> will show you any changes that
 577 you&#8217;ve made but not yet added to the index.)  You can also get a brief
 578 summary of the situation with <code>git status</code>:</p>
 579 </div>
 580 <div class="listingblock">
 581 <div class="content">
 582 <pre>$ git status
 583 On branch master
 584 Changes to be committed:
 585   (use "git restore --staged &lt;file&gt;..." to unstage)
 586
 587         modified:   file1
 588         modified:   file2
 589         modified:   file3</pre>
 590 </div>
 591 </div>
 592 <div class="paragraph">
 593 <p>If you need to make any further adjustments, do so now, and then add any
 594 newly modified content to the index.  Finally, commit your changes with:</p>
 595 </div>
 596 <div class="listingblock">
 597 <div class="content">
 598 <pre>$ git commit</pre>
 599 </div>
 600 </div>
 601 <div class="paragraph">
 602 <p>This will again prompt you for a message describing the change, and then
 603 record a new version of the project.</p>
 604 </div>
 605 <div class="paragraph">
 606 <p>Alternatively, instead of running <code>git add</code> beforehand, you can use</p>
 607 </div>
 608 <div class="listingblock">
 609 <div class="content">
 610 <pre>$ git commit -a</pre>
 611 </div>
 612 </div>
 613 <div class="paragraph">
 614 <p>which will automatically notice any modified (but not new) files, add
 615 them to the index, and commit, all in one step.</p>
 616 </div>
 617 <div class="paragraph">
 618 <p>A note on commit messages: Though not required, it&#8217;s a good idea to
 619 begin the commit message with a single short (no more than 50
 620 characters) line summarizing the change, followed by a blank line and
 621 then a more thorough description. The text up to the first blank line in
 622 a commit message is treated as the commit title, and that title is used
 623 throughout Git.  For example, <a href="git-format-patch.html">git-format-patch(1)</a> turns a
 624 commit into email, and it uses the title on the Subject line and the
 625 rest of the commit in the body.</p>
 626 </div>
 627 </div>
 628 </div>
 629 <div class="sect1">
 630 <h2 id="_git_tracks_content_not_files">Git tracks content not files</h2>
 631 <div class="sectionbody">
 632 <div class="paragraph">
 633 <p>Many revision control systems provide an <code>add</code> command that tells the
 634 system to start tracking changes to a new file.  Git&#8217;s <code>add</code> command
 635 does something simpler and more powerful: <code>git add</code> is used both for new
 636 and newly modified files, and in both cases it takes a snapshot of the
 637 given files and stages that content in the index, ready for inclusion in
 638 the next commit.</p>
 639 </div>
 640 </div>
 641 </div>
 642 <div class="sect1">
 643 <h2 id="_viewing_project_history">Viewing project history</h2>
 644 <div class="sectionbody">
 645 <div class="paragraph">
 646 <p>At any point you can view the history of your changes using</p>
 647 </div>
 648 <div class="listingblock">
 649 <div class="content">
 650 <pre>$ git log</pre>
 651 </div>
 652 </div>
 653 <div class="paragraph">
 654 <p>If you also want to see complete diffs at each step, use</p>
 655 </div>
 656 <div class="listingblock">
 657 <div class="content">
 658 <pre>$ git log -p</pre>
 659 </div>
 660 </div>
 661 <div class="paragraph">
 662 <p>Often the overview of the change is useful to get a feel of
 663 each step</p>
 664 </div>
 665 <div class="listingblock">
 666 <div class="content">
 667 <pre>$ git log --stat --summary</pre>
 668 </div>
 669 </div>
 670 </div>
 671 </div>
 672 <div class="sect1">
 673 <h2 id="_managing_branches">Managing branches</h2>
 674 <div class="sectionbody">
 675 <div class="paragraph">
 676 <p>A single Git repository can maintain multiple branches of
 677 development.  To create a new branch named <code>experimental</code>, use</p>
 678 </div>
 679 <div class="listingblock">
 680 <div class="content">
 681 <pre>$ git branch experimental</pre>
 682 </div>
 683 </div>
 684 <div class="paragraph">
 685 <p>If you now run</p>
 686 </div>
 687 <div class="listingblock">
 688 <div class="content">
 689 <pre>$ git branch</pre>
 690 </div>
 691 </div>
 692 <div class="paragraph">
 693 <p>you&#8217;ll get a list of all existing branches:</p>
 694 </div>
 695 <div class="listingblock">
 696 <div class="content">
 697 <pre>  experimental
 698 * master</pre>
 699 </div>
 700 </div>
 701 <div class="paragraph">
 702 <p>The <code>experimental</code> branch is the one you just created, and the
 703 <code>master</code> branch is a default branch that was created for you
 704 automatically.  The asterisk marks the branch you are currently on;
 705 type</p>
 706 </div>
 707 <div class="listingblock">
 708 <div class="content">
 709 <pre>$ git switch experimental</pre>
 710 </div>
 711 </div>
 712 <div class="paragraph">
 713 <p>to switch to the <code>experimental</code> branch.  Now edit a file, commit the
 714 change, and switch back to the <code>master</code> branch:</p>
 715 </div>
 716 <div class="listingblock">
 717 <div class="content">
 718 <pre>(edit file)
 719 $ git commit -a
 720 $ git switch master</pre>
 721 </div>
 722 </div>
 723 <div class="paragraph">
 724 <p>Check that the change you made is no longer visible, since it was
 725 made on the <code>experimental</code> branch and you&#8217;re back on the <code>master</code> branch.</p>
 726 </div>
 727 <div class="paragraph">
 728 <p>You can make a different change on the <code>master</code> branch:</p>
 729 </div>
 730 <div class="listingblock">
 731 <div class="content">
 732 <pre>(edit file)
 733 $ git commit -a</pre>
 734 </div>
 735 </div>
 736 <div class="paragraph">
 737 <p>at this point the two branches have diverged, with different changes
 738 made in each.  To merge the changes made in <code>experimental</code> into <code>master</code>, run</p>
 739 </div>
 740 <div class="listingblock">
 741 <div class="content">
 742 <pre>$ git merge experimental</pre>
 743 </div>
 744 </div>
 745 <div class="paragraph">
 746 <p>If the changes don&#8217;t conflict, you&#8217;re done.  If there are conflicts,
 747 markers will be left in the problematic files showing the conflict;</p>
 748 </div>
 749 <div class="listingblock">
 750 <div class="content">
 751 <pre>$ git diff</pre>
 752 </div>
 753 </div>
 754 <div class="paragraph">
 755 <p>will show this.  Once you&#8217;ve edited the files to resolve the
 756 conflicts,</p>
 757 </div>
 758 <div class="listingblock">
 759 <div class="content">
 760 <pre>$ git commit -a</pre>
 761 </div>
 762 </div>
 763 <div class="paragraph">
 764 <p>will commit the result of the merge. Finally,</p>
 765 </div>
 766 <div class="listingblock">
 767 <div class="content">
 768 <pre>$ gitk</pre>
 769 </div>
 770 </div>
 771 <div class="paragraph">
 772 <p>will show a nice graphical representation of the resulting history.</p>
 773 </div>
 774 <div class="paragraph">
 775 <p>At this point you could delete the <code>experimental</code> branch with</p>
 776 </div>
 777 <div class="listingblock">
 778 <div class="content">
 779 <pre>$ git branch -d experimental</pre>
 780 </div>
 781 </div>
 782 <div class="paragraph">
 783 <p>This command ensures that the changes in the <code>experimental</code> branch are
 784 already in the current branch.</p>
 785 </div>
 786 <div class="paragraph">
 787 <p>If you develop on a branch <code>crazy-idea</code>, then regret it, you can always
 788 delete the branch with</p>
 789 </div>
 790 <div class="listingblock">
 791 <div class="content">
 792 <pre>$ git branch -D crazy-idea</pre>
 793 </div>
 794 </div>
 795 <div class="paragraph">
 796 <p>Branches are cheap and easy, so this is a good way to try something
 797 out.</p>
 798 </div>
 799 </div>
 800 </div>
 801 <div class="sect1">
 802 <h2 id="_using_git_for_collaboration">Using Git for collaboration</h2>
 803 <div class="sectionbody">
 804 <div class="paragraph">
 805 <p>Suppose that Alice has started a new project with a Git repository in
 806 <code>/home/alice/project</code>, and that Bob, who has a home directory on the
 807 same machine, wants to contribute.</p>
 808 </div>
 809 <div class="paragraph">
 810 <p>Bob begins with:</p>
 811 </div>
 812 <div class="listingblock">
 813 <div class="content">
 814 <pre>bob$ git clone /home/alice/project myrepo</pre>
 815 </div>
 816 </div>
 817 <div class="paragraph">
 818 <p>This creates a new directory <code>myrepo</code> containing a clone of Alice&#8217;s
 819 repository.  The clone is on an equal footing with the original
 820 project, possessing its own copy of the original project&#8217;s history.</p>
 821 </div>
 822 <div class="paragraph">
 823 <p>Bob then makes some changes and commits them:</p>
 824 </div>
 825 <div class="listingblock">
 826 <div class="content">
 827 <pre>(edit files)
 828 bob$ git commit -a
 829 (repeat as necessary)</pre>
 830 </div>
 831 </div>
 832 <div class="paragraph">
 833 <p>When he&#8217;s ready, he tells Alice to pull changes from the repository
 834 at <code>/home/bob/myrepo</code>.  She does this with:</p>
 835 </div>
 836 <div class="listingblock">
 837 <div class="content">
 838 <pre>alice$ cd /home/alice/project
 839 alice$ git pull /home/bob/myrepo master</pre>
 840 </div>
 841 </div>
 842 <div class="paragraph">
 843 <p>This merges the changes from Bob&#8217;s <code>master</code> branch into Alice&#8217;s
 844 current branch.  If Alice has made her own changes in the meantime,
 845 then she may need to manually fix any conflicts.</p>
 846 </div>
 847 <div class="paragraph">
 848 <p>The <code>pull</code> command thus performs two operations: it fetches changes
 849 from a remote branch, then merges them into the current branch.</p>
 850 </div>
 851 <div class="paragraph">
 852 <p>Note that in general, Alice would want her local changes committed before
 853 initiating this <code>pull</code>.  If Bob&#8217;s work conflicts with what Alice did since
 854 their histories forked, Alice will use her working tree and the index to
 855 resolve conflicts, and existing local changes will interfere with the
 856 conflict resolution process (Git will still perform the fetch but will
 857 refuse to merge&#8201;&#8212;&#8201;Alice will have to get rid of her local changes in
 858 some way and pull again when this happens).</p>
 859 </div>
 860 <div class="paragraph">
 861 <p>Alice can peek at what Bob did without merging first, using the <code>fetch</code>
 862 command; this allows Alice to inspect what Bob did, using a special
 863 symbol <code>FETCH_HEAD</code>, in order to determine if he has anything worth
 864 pulling, like this:</p>
 865 </div>
 866 <div class="listingblock">
 867 <div class="content">
 868 <pre>alice$ git fetch /home/bob/myrepo master
 869 alice$ git log -p HEAD..FETCH_HEAD</pre>
 870 </div>
 871 </div>
 872 <div class="paragraph">
 873 <p>This operation is safe even if Alice has uncommitted local changes.
 874 The range notation <code>HEAD..FETCH_HEAD</code> means "show everything that is reachable
 875 from the <code>FETCH_HEAD</code> but exclude anything that is reachable from <code>HEAD</code>".
 876 Alice already knows everything that leads to her current state (<code>HEAD</code>),
 877 and reviews what Bob has in his state (<code>FETCH_HEAD</code>) that she has not
 878 seen with this command.</p>
 879 </div>
 880 <div class="paragraph">
 881 <p>If Alice wants to visualize what Bob did since their histories forked
 882 she can issue the following command:</p>
 883 </div>
 884 <div class="listingblock">
 885 <div class="content">
 886 <pre>$ gitk HEAD..FETCH_HEAD</pre>
 887 </div>
 888 </div>
 889 <div class="paragraph">
 890 <p>This uses the same two-dot range notation we saw earlier with <code>git log</code>.</p>
 891 </div>
 892 <div class="paragraph">
 893 <p>Alice may want to view what both of them did since they forked.
 894 She can use three-dot form instead of the two-dot form:</p>
 895 </div>
 896 <div class="listingblock">
 897 <div class="content">
 898 <pre>$ gitk HEAD...FETCH_HEAD</pre>
 899 </div>
 900 </div>
 901 <div class="paragraph">
 902 <p>This means "show everything that is reachable from either one, but
 903 exclude anything that is reachable from both of them".</p>
 904 </div>
 905 <div class="paragraph">
 906 <p>Please note that these range notations can be used with both <code>gitk</code>
 907 and <code>git log</code>.</p>
 908 </div>
 909 <div class="paragraph">
 910 <p>After inspecting what Bob did, if there is nothing urgent, Alice may
 911 decide to continue working without pulling from Bob.  If Bob&#8217;s history
 912 does have something Alice would immediately need, Alice may choose to
 913 stash her work-in-progress first, do a <code>pull</code>, and then finally unstash
 914 her work-in-progress on top of the resulting history.</p>
 915 </div>
 916 <div class="paragraph">
 917 <p>When you are working in a small closely knit group, it is not
 918 unusual to interact with the same repository over and over
 919 again.  By defining <em>remote</em> repository shorthand, you can make
 920 it easier:</p>
 921 </div>
 922 <div class="listingblock">
 923 <div class="content">
 924 <pre>alice$ git remote add bob /home/bob/myrepo</pre>
 925 </div>
 926 </div>
 927 <div class="paragraph">
 928 <p>With this, Alice can perform the first part of the <code>pull</code> operation
 929 alone using the <code>git fetch</code> command without merging them with her own
 930 branch, using:</p>
 931 </div>
 932 <div class="listingblock">
 933 <div class="content">
 934 <pre>alice$ git fetch bob</pre>
 935 </div>
 936 </div>
 937 <div class="paragraph">
 938 <p>Unlike the longhand form, when Alice fetches from Bob using a
 939 remote repository shorthand set up with <code>git remote</code>, what was
 940 fetched is stored in a remote-tracking branch, in this case
 941 <code>bob/master</code>.  So after this:</p>
 942 </div>
 943 <div class="listingblock">
 944 <div class="content">
 945 <pre>alice$ git log -p master..bob/master</pre>
 946 </div>
 947 </div>
 948 <div class="paragraph">
 949 <p>shows a list of all the changes that Bob made since he branched from
 950 Alice&#8217;s <code>master</code> branch.</p>
 951 </div>
 952 <div class="paragraph">
 953 <p>After examining those changes, Alice
 954 could merge the changes into her <code>master</code> branch:</p>
 955 </div>
 956 <div class="listingblock">
 957 <div class="content">
 958 <pre>alice$ git merge bob/master</pre>
 959 </div>
 960 </div>
 961 <div class="paragraph">
 962 <p>This <code>merge</code> can also be done by <em>pulling from her own remote-tracking
 963 branch</em>, like this:</p>
 964 </div>
 965 <div class="listingblock">
 966 <div class="content">
 967 <pre>alice$ git pull . remotes/bob/master</pre>
 968 </div>
 969 </div>
 970 <div class="paragraph">
 971 <p>Note that git pull always merges into the current branch,
 972 regardless of what else is given on the command line.</p>
 973 </div>
 974 <div class="paragraph">
 975 <p>Later, Bob can update his repo with Alice&#8217;s latest changes using</p>
 976 </div>
 977 <div class="listingblock">
 978 <div class="content">
 979 <pre>bob$ git pull</pre>
 980 </div>
 981 </div>
 982 <div class="paragraph">
 983 <p>Note that he doesn&#8217;t need to give the path to Alice&#8217;s repository;
 984 when Bob cloned Alice&#8217;s repository, Git stored the location of her
 985 repository in the repository configuration, and that location is
 986 used for pulls:</p>
 987 </div>
 988 <div class="listingblock">
 989 <div class="content">
 990 <pre>bob$ git config --get remote.origin.url
 991 /home/alice/project</pre>
 992 </div>
 993 </div>
 994 <div class="paragraph">
 995 <p>(The complete configuration created by <code>git clone</code> is visible using
 996 <code>git config -l</code>, and the <a href="git-config.html">git-config(1)</a> man page
 997 explains the meaning of each option.)</p>
 998 </div>
 999 <div class="paragraph">
1000 <p>Git also keeps a pristine copy of Alice&#8217;s <code>master</code> branch under the
1001 name <code>origin/master</code>:</p>
1002 </div>
1003 <div class="listingblock">
1004 <div class="content">
1005 <pre>bob$ git branch -r
1006   origin/master</pre>
1007 </div>
1008 </div>
1009 <div class="paragraph">
1010 <p>If Bob later decides to work from a different host, he can still
1011 perform clones and pulls using the ssh protocol:</p>
1012 </div>
1013 <div class="listingblock">
1014 <div class="content">
1015 <pre>bob$ git clone alice.org:/home/alice/project myrepo</pre>
1016 </div>
1017 </div>
1018 <div class="paragraph">
1019 <p>Alternatively, Git has a native protocol, or can use http;
1020 see <a href="git-pull.html">git-pull(1)</a> for details.</p>
1021 </div>
1022 <div class="paragraph">
1023 <p>Git can also be used in a CVS-like mode, with a central repository
1024 that various users push changes to; see <a href="git-push.html">git-push(1)</a> and
1025 <a href="gitcvs-migration.html">gitcvs-migration(7)</a>.</p>
1026 </div>
1027 </div>
1028 </div>
1029 <div class="sect1">
1030 <h2 id="_exploring_history">Exploring history</h2>
1031 <div class="sectionbody">
1032 <div class="paragraph">
1033 <p>Git history is represented as a series of interrelated commits.  We
1034 have already seen that the <code>git log</code> command can list those commits.
1035 Note that first line of each <code>git log</code> entry also gives a name for the
1036 commit:</p>
1037 </div>
1038 <div class="listingblock">
1039 <div class="content">
1040 <pre>$ git log
1041 commit c82a22c39cbc32576f64f5c6b3f24b99ea8149c7
1042 Author: Junio C Hamano &lt;junkio@cox.net&gt;
1043 Date:   Tue May 16 17:18:22 2006 -0700
1044
1045     merge-base: Clarify the comments on post processing.</pre>
1046 </div>
1047 </div>
1048 <div class="paragraph">
1049 <p>We can give this name to <code>git show</code> to see the details about this
1050 commit.</p>
1051 </div>
1052 <div class="listingblock">
1053 <div class="content">
1054 <pre>$ git show c82a22c39cbc32576f64f5c6b3f24b99ea8149c7</pre>
1055 </div>
1056 </div>
1057 <div class="paragraph">
1058 <p>But there are other ways to refer to commits.  You can use any initial
1059 part of the name that is long enough to uniquely identify the commit:</p>
1060 </div>
1061 <div class="listingblock">
1062 <div class="content">
1063 <pre>$ git show c82a22c39c   # the first few characters of the name are
1064                         # usually enough
1065 $ git show HEAD         # the tip of the current branch
1066 $ git show experimental # the tip of the "experimental" branch</pre>
1067 </div>
1068 </div>
1069 <div class="paragraph">
1070 <p>Every commit usually has one "parent" commit
1071 which points to the previous state of the project:</p>
1072 </div>
1073 <div class="listingblock">
1074 <div class="content">
1075 <pre>$ git show HEAD^  # to see the parent of HEAD
1076 $ git show HEAD^^ # to see the grandparent of HEAD
1077 $ git show HEAD~4 # to see the great-great grandparent of HEAD</pre>
1078 </div>
1079 </div>
1080 <div class="paragraph">
1081 <p>Note that merge commits may have more than one parent:</p>
1082 </div>
1083 <div class="listingblock">
1084 <div class="content">
1085 <pre>$ git show HEAD^1 # show the first parent of HEAD (same as HEAD^)
1086 $ git show HEAD^2 # show the second parent of HEAD</pre>
1087 </div>
1088 </div>
1089 <div class="paragraph">
1090 <p>You can also give commits names of your own; after running</p>
1091 </div>
1092 <div class="listingblock">
1093 <div class="content">
1094 <pre>$ git tag v2.5 1b2e1d63ff</pre>
1095 </div>
1096 </div>
1097 <div class="paragraph">
1098 <p>you can refer to <code>1b2e1d63ff</code> by the name <code>v2.5</code>.  If you intend to
1099 share this name with other people (for example, to identify a release
1100 version), you should create a "tag" object, and perhaps sign it; see
1101 <a href="git-tag.html">git-tag(1)</a> for details.</p>
1102 </div>
1103 <div class="paragraph">
1104 <p>Any Git command that needs to know a commit can take any of these
1105 names.  For example:</p>
1106 </div>
1107 <div class="listingblock">
1108 <div class="content">
1109 <pre>$ git diff v2.5 HEAD     # compare the current HEAD to v2.5
1110 $ git branch stable v2.5 # start a new branch named "stable" based
1111                          # at v2.5
1112 $ git reset --hard HEAD^ # reset your current branch and working
1113                          # directory to its state at HEAD^</pre>
1114 </div>
1115 </div>
1116 <div class="paragraph">
1117 <p>Be careful with that last command: in addition to losing any changes
1118 in the working directory, it will also remove all later commits from
1119 this branch.  If this branch is the only branch containing those
1120 commits, they will be lost.  Also, don&#8217;t use <code>git reset</code> on a
1121 publicly-visible branch that other developers pull from, as it will
1122 force needless merges on other developers to clean up the history.
1123 If you need to undo changes that you have pushed, use <code>git revert</code>
1124 instead.</p>
1125 </div>
1126 <div class="paragraph">
1127 <p>The <code>git grep</code> command can search for strings in any version of your
1128 project, so</p>
1129 </div>
1130 <div class="listingblock">
1131 <div class="content">
1132 <pre>$ git grep "hello" v2.5</pre>
1133 </div>
1134 </div>
1135 <div class="paragraph">
1136 <p>searches for all occurrences of "hello" in <code>v2.5</code>.</p>
1137 </div>
1138 <div class="paragraph">
1139 <p>If you leave out the commit name, <code>git grep</code> will search any of the
1140 files it manages in your current directory.  So</p>
1141 </div>
1142 <div class="listingblock">
1143 <div class="content">
1144 <pre>$ git grep "hello"</pre>
1145 </div>
1146 </div>
1147 <div class="paragraph">
1148 <p>is a quick way to search just the files that are tracked by Git.</p>
1149 </div>
1150 <div class="paragraph">
1151 <p>Many Git commands also take sets of commits, which can be specified
1152 in a number of ways.  Here are some examples with <code>git log</code>:</p>
1153 </div>
1154 <div class="listingblock">
1155 <div class="content">
1156 <pre>$ git log v2.5..v2.6            # commits between v2.5 and v2.6
1157 $ git log v2.5..                # commits since v2.5
1158 $ git log --since="2 weeks ago" # commits from the last 2 weeks
1159 $ git log v2.5.. Makefile       # commits since v2.5 which modify
1160                                 # Makefile</pre>
1161 </div>
1162 </div>
1163 <div class="paragraph">
1164 <p>You can also give <code>git log</code> a "range" of commits where the first is not
1165 necessarily an ancestor of the second; for example, if the tips of
1166 the branches <code>stable</code> and <code>master</code> diverged from a common
1167 commit some time ago, then</p>
1168 </div>
1169 <div class="listingblock">
1170 <div class="content">
1171 <pre>$ git log stable..master</pre>
1172 </div>
1173 </div>
1174 <div class="paragraph">
1175 <p>will list commits made in the <code>master</code> branch but not in the
1176 stable branch, while</p>
1177 </div>
1178 <div class="listingblock">
1179 <div class="content">
1180 <pre>$ git log master..stable</pre>
1181 </div>
1182 </div>
1183 <div class="paragraph">
1184 <p>will show the list of commits made on the stable branch but not
1185 the <code>master</code> branch.</p>
1186 </div>
1187 <div class="paragraph">
1188 <p>The <code>git log</code> command has a weakness: it must present commits in a
1189 list.  When the history has lines of development that diverged and
1190 then merged back together, the order in which <code>git log</code> presents
1191 those commits is meaningless.</p>
1192 </div>
1193 <div class="paragraph">
1194 <p>Most projects with multiple contributors (such as the Linux kernel,
1195 or Git itself) have frequent merges, and <code>gitk</code> does a better job of
1196 visualizing their history.  For example,</p>
1197 </div>
1198 <div class="listingblock">
1199 <div class="content">
1200 <pre>$ gitk --since="2 weeks ago" drivers/</pre>
1201 </div>
1202 </div>
1203 <div class="paragraph">
1204 <p>allows you to browse any commits from the last 2 weeks of commits
1205 that modified files under the <code>drivers</code> directory.  (Note: you can
1206 adjust gitk&#8217;s fonts by holding down the control key while pressing
1207 "-" or "+".)</p>
1208 </div>
1209 <div class="paragraph">
1210 <p>Finally, most commands that take filenames will optionally allow you
1211 to precede any filename by a commit, to specify a particular version
1212 of the file:</p>
1213 </div>
1214 <div class="listingblock">
1215 <div class="content">
1216 <pre>$ git diff v2.5:Makefile HEAD:Makefile.in</pre>
1217 </div>
1218 </div>
1219 <div class="paragraph">
1220 <p>You can also use <code>git show</code> to see any such file:</p>
1221 </div>
1222 <div class="listingblock">
1223 <div class="content">
1224 <pre>$ git show v2.5:Makefile</pre>
1225 </div>
1226 </div>
1227 </div>
1228 </div>
1229 <div class="sect1">
1230 <h2 id="_next_steps">Next Steps</h2>
1231 <div class="sectionbody">
1232 <div class="paragraph">
1233 <p>This tutorial should be enough to perform basic distributed revision
1234 control for your projects.  However, to fully understand the depth
1235 and power of Git you need to understand two simple ideas on which it
1236 is based:</p>
1237 </div>
1238 <div class="ulist">
1239 <ul>
1240 <li>
1241 <p>The object database is the rather elegant system used to
1242 store the history of your project&#8212;&#8203;files, directories, and
1243 commits.</p>
1244 </li>
1245 <li>
1246 <p>The index file is a cache of the state of a directory tree,
1247 used to create commits, check out working directories, and
1248 hold the various trees involved in a merge.</p>
1249 </li>
1250 </ul>
1251 </div>
1252 <div class="paragraph">
1253 <p>Part two of this tutorial explains the object
1254 database, the index file, and a few other odds and ends that you&#8217;ll
1255 need to make the most of Git. You can find it at <a href="gittutorial-2.html">gittutorial-2(7)</a>.</p>
1256 </div>
1257 <div class="paragraph">
1258 <p>If you don&#8217;t want to continue with that right away, a few other
1259 digressions that may be interesting at this point are:</p>
1260 </div>
1261 <div class="ulist">
1262 <ul>
1263 <li>
1264 <p><a href="git-format-patch.html">git-format-patch(1)</a>, <a href="git-am.html">git-am(1)</a>: These convert
1265 series of git commits into emailed patches, and vice versa,
1266 useful for projects such as the Linux kernel which rely heavily
1267 on emailed patches.</p>
1268 </li>
1269 <li>
1270 <p><a href="git-bisect.html">git-bisect(1)</a>: When there is a regression in your
1271 project, one way to track down the bug is by searching through
1272 the history to find the exact commit that&#8217;s to blame.  <code>git bisect</code>
1273 can help you perform a binary search for that commit.  It is
1274 smart enough to perform a close-to-optimal search even in the
1275 case of complex non-linear history with lots of merged branches.</p>
1276 </li>
1277 <li>
1278 <p><a href="gitworkflows.html">gitworkflows(7)</a>: Gives an overview of recommended
1279 workflows.</p>
1280 </li>
1281 <li>
1282 <p><a href="giteveryday.html">giteveryday(7)</a>: Everyday Git with 20 Commands Or So.</p>
1283 </li>
1284 <li>
1285 <p><a href="gitcvs-migration.html">gitcvs-migration(7)</a>: Git for CVS users.</p>
1286 </li>
1287 </ul>
1288 </div>
1289 </div>
1290 </div>
1291 <div class="sect1">
1292 <h2 id="_see_also">SEE ALSO</h2>
1293 <div class="sectionbody">
1294 <div class="paragraph">
1295 <p><a href="gittutorial-2.html">gittutorial-2(7)</a>,
1296 <a href="gitcvs-migration.html">gitcvs-migration(7)</a>,
1297 <a href="gitcore-tutorial.html">gitcore-tutorial(7)</a>,
1298 <a href="gitglossary.html">gitglossary(7)</a>,
1299 <a href="git-help.html">git-help(1)</a>,
1300 <a href="gitworkflows.html">gitworkflows(7)</a>,
1301 <a href="giteveryday.html">giteveryday(7)</a>,
1302 <a href="user-manual.html">The Git User&#8217;s Manual</a></p>
1303 </div>
1304 </div>
1305 </div>
1306 <div class="sect1">
1307 <h2 id="_git">GIT</h2>
1308 <div class="sectionbody">
1309 <div class="paragraph">
1310 <p>Part of the <a href="git.html">git(1)</a> suite</p>
1311 </div>
1312 </div>
1313 </div>
1314 </div>
1315 <div id="footer">
1316 <div id="footer-text">
1317 Last updated 2024-08-21 14:01:26 -0700
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