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Developer notes regarding trace(1), by David van Moolenbroek.


OVERALL CODE STRUCTURE

The general tracing engine is in trace.c.  It passes IPC-level system call
enter and leave events off to call.c, which handles IPC-level system call
printing and passes off system calls to be interpreted by a service-specific
system call handler whenever possible.  All the service-specific code is in the
service/ subdirectory, grouped by destination service.  IOCTLs are a special
case, which are handled in ioctl.c and passed on to driver-type-grouped IOCTL
handlers in the ioctl/ subdirectory (this grouping is not strict).  Some of the
generated output goes through the formatting code in format.c, and all of it
ends up in output.c.  The remaining source files contain support code.


ADDING A SYSTEM CALL HANDLER

In principle, every system call stops the traced process twice: once when the
system call is started (the call-enter event) and once when the system call
returns (the call-leave event).  The tracer uses the call-enter event to print
the request being made, and the call-leave event to print the result of the
call.  The output format is supposed to mimic largely what the system call
looks like from a C program, although with additional information where that
makes sense.  The general output format for system calls is:

  name(parameters) = result

..where "name" is the name of the system call, "parameters" is a list of system
call parameters, and "result" is the result of the system call.  If possible,
the part up to and including the equals sign is printed from the call-enter
event, and the result is printed from the call-leave event.  However, many
system calls actually pass a pointer to a block of memory that is filled with
meaningful content as part of the system call.  For that reason, it is also
possible that the call-enter event stops printing somewhere inside the
parameters block, and the call-leave event prints the rest of the parameters,
as well as the equals sign and the result after it.  The place in the printed
system call where the call-enter printer stops and the call-leave printer is
supposed to pick up again, is referred to as the "call split".

The tracer has to a handler structure for every system call that can be made by
a user program to any of the the MINIX3 services.  This handler structure
provides three elements: the name of the system call, an "out" function that
handles printing of the call-enter part of the system call, and an "in"
function that handles printing of the call-leave part of the system call.  The
"out" function is expected to print zero or more call parameters, and then
return a call type, which indicates whether all parameters have been printed
yet, or not.  In fact, there are three call types, shown here with an example
which has a "|" pipe symbol added to indicate the call split:

  CT_DONE:       write(5, "foo", 3) = |3
  CT_NOTDONE:    read(5, |"foo", 1024) = 3
  CT_NORETURN:   execve("foo", ["foo"], []")| = -1 [ENOENT]

The CT_DONE call type indicates that the handler is done printing all the
parameters during the call-enter event, and the call split will be after the
equals sign.  The CT_NOTDONE call type indicates that the handler is not done
printing all parameters yet, thus yielding a call split in the middle of the
parameters block (or even right after the opening parenthesis).  The no-return
(CT_NORETURN) call type is used for a small number of functions that do not
return on success.  Currently, these are the exit(), execve(), and sigreturn()
system calls.  For these calls, no result will be printed at all, unless such
a call fails, in which case a failure result is printed after all.  The call
split is such that the entire parameters block is printed upon entering the
call, but the equals sign and result are printed only if the call does return.

Now more about the handler structure for the system call.  First of all, each
system call has a name, which must be a static string.  It may be supplied
either as a string, or as a function that returns a name string.  The latter is
for cases where one message-level system call is used to implement multiple
C-level system calls (such as setitimer() and getitimer() both going through
PM_ITIMER).  The name function has the following prototype:

  const char *svc_syscall_name(const message *m_out);

..where "m_out" is a local copy of the request message, which the name function
can use to decide what string to return for the system call.  As a sidenote,
in the future, the system call name will be used to implement call filtering.

An "out" printer function has the following prototype:

  int svc_syscall_out(struct trace_proc *proc, const message *m_out);

Here, "proc" is a pointer to the process structure containing information about
the process making the system call; proc->pid returns the process PID, but the
function should not access any other fields of this structure directly.
Instead, many of the output primitive and helper functions (which are all
prefixed with "put_") take this pointer as part of the call.  "m_out" is a
local copy of the request message, and the printer may access its fields as it
sees fit.

The printer function should simply print parameters.  The call name and the
opening parenthesis are printed by the main output routine.

All simple call parameters should be printed using the put_field() and
put_value() functions.  The former prints a parameter or field name as flat
text; the latter is a printf-like interface to the former.  By default, call
paramaters are simply printed as "value", but if printing all names is enabled,
call parameters are printed as "name=value".  Thus, all parameters should be
given a name, even if this name does not show up by default.  Either way, these
two functions take care of deciding whether to print the name, as well as of
printing separators between the parameters.  More about printing more complex
parameters (such as structures) in a bit.

The out printer function must return one of the three CT_ call type values.  If
it returns CT_DONE, the main output routine will immediately print the closing
parenthesis and equals sign.  If it returns CF_NORETURN, a closing parenthesis
will be printed.  If it return CF_NOTDONE, only a parameter field separator
(that is, a comma and a space) will be printed--after all, it can be assumed
that more parameters will be printed later.

An "in" printer function has the following prototype:

  void svc_syscall_in(struct trace_proc *proc, const message *m_out,
          const message *m_in, int failed);

Again, "proc" is the traced process of which its current system call has now
returned.  "m_out" is again the request message, guaranteed to be unchanged
since the "out" call.  "m_in" is the reply message from the service.  "failed"
is either 0 to indicate that the call appears to have succeeded, or PF_FAILED
to indicate that the call definitely failed.  If PF_FAILED is set, the call
has failed either at the IPC level or at the system call level (or for another,
less common reason).  In that case, the contents of "m_in" may be garbage and
"m_in" must not be used at all.

For CF_NOTDONE type calls, the in printer function should first print the
remaining parameters.  Here especially, it is important to consider that the
entire call may fail.  In that case, the parameters of which the contents were
still going to be printed may also contain garbage, since they were never
filled.  The expected behavior is to print such parameters as pointer or "&.."
or something else to indicate that their actual contents are not valid.

Either way, once a CF_NOTDONE type call function is done printing the remaining
parameters, it must call put_equals(proc) to print the closing parenthesis of
the call and the equals sign.  CF_NORETURN calls must also use put_equals(proc)
to print the equals sign.

Then comes the result part.  If the call failed, the in printer function *must*
use put_result(proc) to print the failure result.  This call not only takes
care of converting negative error codes from m_in->m_type into "-1 [ECODE]" but
also prints appropriate failure codes for IPC-level and other exceptional
failures.  Only if the system call did not fail, may the in printer function
choose to not call put_result(proc), which on success simply prints
m_in->m_type as an integer.  Similarly, if the system call succeeded, the in
printer function may print extended results after the primary result, generally
in parentheses.  For example, getpid() and getppid() share the same system call
and thus the tracer prints both return values, one as the primary result of the
actual call and one in parentheses with a clarifying name as extended result:

  getpid() = 3 (ppid=1)

It should now be clear that printing extended results makes no sense if the
system call failed.

Besidse put_equals and put_result, the following more or less generic support
functions are available to print the various parts of the requests and replies.

  put_field - output a parameter, structure field, and so on; this function
              should be used for just about every actual value
  put_value - printf-like version of put_field
  put_text  - output plain text; for call handlers, this should be used only to
              to add things right after a put_field call, never on its own
  put_fmt   - printf-like version of put_text, should generally not be used
              from call handlers at all
  put_open  - open a nested block of fields, surrounded by parentheses,
              brackets, or something like that; this is used for structures,
              arrays, and any other similar nontrivial case of nesting
  put_close - close a previously opened block of fields; the nesting depth is
              actually tracked (to keep per-level separators etc), so each
              put_open call must have a corresponding put_close call
  put_open_struct  - perform several tasks necessary to start printing the
                     fields of a structure; note that this function may fail!
  put_close_struct - end successful printing of a structure
  put_ptr   - print a pointer in the traced process
  put_buf   - print a buffer or string
  put_flags - print a bitwise flags field
  put_tail  - helper function for printing the continuation part of an array

Many of these support functions take a flags field which takes PF_-prefixed
flags to modify the output they generate.  The value of 'failed' in the in
printer function may actually be passed (bitwise-OR'ed in) as the PF_FAILED
flag to these support functions, and they will do the right thing.  For
example, a call to put_open_struct with the PF_FAILED flag will end up simply
printing the pointer to the structure, and not allow printing of the contents
of the structure.

The above support functions are documented (at a basic level) within the code,
but in many cases, it may be useful to look up how they are used in practice by
the existing handlers.  The same goes for various less clear cases; while there
is basic support for printing structures, support for printing arrays must be
coded fully by hand, as has been done for many places.  A serious attempt has
been made to make the output consistent across the board (mainly thanks to the
output format of strace, on which the output of this tracer has been based,
sometimes very strictly and sometimes more loosely, but that aside) so it is
always advisable to follow the ways of the existing handlers.  Also keep in
mind that there are already printer functions for several generic structures,
and these should be used whenever possible (e.g., see the put_fd() comment).

Finally, the default_out and default_in functions may be used as printer
functions for call with no parameters, and for functions which need no more
than put_result() to print their system call result, respectively.


ADDING AN IOCTL HANDLER

There are many IOCTL requests, and many have their own associated data types.
Like with system calls, the idea is to provide an actual implementation for any
IOCTLs that can actually occur in the wild.  This consists of printing the full
IOCTL name, as well as its argument.  First something about how handling IOCTLs
is grouped into files in the ioctl subdirectory, then about the actual
procedure the IOCTLs are handled.

Grouping of IOCTL handling in the ioctl subdirectory is currently based on the
IOCTLs' associated device type.  This is not a performance optimization: for
any given IOCTL, there is no way for the main IOCTL code (in ioctl.c) to know
which group, if any, contains a handler for the IOCTL, so it simply queries all
groups.  The grouping is there only to keep down the size of individual source
files, and as such not even strict: for example, networking IOCTLs are
technically a subset of character IOCTLs, and kept separate only because there
are so many of them.  The point here is mainly that the separation is not at
all set in stone.  However, the svrctl group is an exception: svrctl(2)
requests are very much like IOCTLs, and thus also treated as such, but they are
in a different namespace.  Thus, their handlers are in a separate file.

As per the ioctl_table structure, each group has a function to return the name
of an IOCTL it knows (typically <group>_ioctl_name), and a function to handle
IOCTL arguments (typically <group>_ioctl_arg).  Whenever an IOCTL system call
is made, each group's name function is queried.  This function has the
following prototype:

  const char *group_ioctl_name(unsigned long req);

The "req" parameter contains the IOCTL request code.  The function is to return
a static non-NULL string if it knows the name for the request code, or NULL
otherwise.  If the function returns a non-NULL string, that name will be used
for the IOCTL.  In addition, if the IOCTL has an argument at all, i.e. it is
not of the basic _IO() type, that group (and only that group!) will be queried
about the IOCTL argument, by calling the group's IOCTL argument function.  The
IOCTL argument function has the following prototype:

  int group_ioctl_arg(struct trace_proc *proc, unsigned long req, void *ptr,
          int dir);

For a single IOCTL, this function may be called up to three times.  The first
time, "ptr" will be NULL, and based on the same IOCTL request code "req", the
function must return any bitwise combination of two flags: IF_OUT and IF_IN.

The returned flags determine whether and how the IOCTL's argument will be
printed: before and/or after performing the IOCTL system call.  These two flags
effectively correspond to the "write" and "read" argument directions of IOCTLs:
IF_OUT indicates that the argument should be printed before the IOCTL request,
and this is to be used only for IOCTLs of type _IOW() and _IOWR().  IF_IN
indicates that the argument should be printed after the IOCTL request (but if
it was successful only), and is to be used only for IOCTLs of type _IOR() and
_IOWR().

The returned flag combination determines how the IOCTL is formatted.  The
following possible return values result in the following output formats, again
with the "|" indicating the call split, "out" being the IOCTL argument contents
printed before the IOCTL call, and "in" being the IOCTL argument printed after
the IOCTL call:

  0:             ioctl(3, IOCFOO, &0xaddress) = |0
  IF_OUT:        ioctl(3, IOCFOO, {out}) = |0
  IF_OUT|IF_IN:  ioctl(3, IOCFOO, {out}) = |0 {in}
  IF_IN:         ioctl(3, IOCFOO, |{in}) = 0

Both IF_ flags are optional, mainly because it is not always needed to print
both sides for an _IOWR() request.  However, using the wrong flag (e.g., IF_OUT
for an _IOR() request, which simply makes no sense) will trigger an assert.
Also, the function should basically never return 0 for an IOCTL it recognizes.
Again, for IOCTLs of type _IO(), which have no argument, the argument function
is not called at all.

Now the important part.  For each flag that is returned on the initial call to
the argument function, the argument function will be called again, this time to
perform actual printing of the argument.  For these subsequent calls, "ptr"
will point to the argument data which has been copied to the local address
space, and "dir" will contain one of the returned flags (that is, either IF_OUT
or IF_IN) to indicate whether the function is called before or after the IOCTL
call.  As should now be obvious, if the first call returned IF_OUT | IF_IN, the
function will be called again with "dir" set to IF_OUT, and if the IOCTL call
did not fail, once more (for the third time), now with "dir" set to IF_IN.

For these calls with an actual "ptr" value and a direction, the function should
indeed print the argument as appropriate, using "proc" as process pointer for
use in calls to the printing functions.  The general approach is to print non-
structure arguments as single values with no field name, and structure
arguments by printing its fields with their field names.  The main code (in
ioctl.c) ensures that the output is enclosed in curly brackets, thus making the
output look like a structure anyway.

For these subsequent calls, the argument function's return value should be
IF_ALL if all parts of the IOCTL argument have been printed, or 0 otherwise.
In the latter case, the main code will add a final ".." field to indicate to
the user that not all parts of the argument have been printed, very much like
the "all" parameter of put_close_struct.

If no name can be found for the IOCTL request code, the argument will simply be
printed as a pointer.  The same happens in error cases, for example if copying
in the IOCTL data resulted in an error.

There is no support for dealing with multiple IOCTLs with the exact same
request code--something that should not, but sadly does, occur in practice.
For now, the preferred approach would be to implement only support for the
IOCTL that is most likely to be found in practice, and possibly to put a horse
head in the bed of whoever introduced the duplicate request code.


INTERNALS: MULTIPROCESS OUTPUT AND PREEMPTION

Things get interesting when multiple processes are traced at once.  Due to the
nature of process scheduling, system calls may end up being preempted between
the call-enter and call-leave phases.  This means that the output of a system
call has to be suspended to give way to an event from another traced process.
Such preemption may occur with literally all calls; not just "blocking" calls.

The tracer goes through some lengths to aid the user in following the output in
the light of preemtion.  The most important aspect is that the output of the
call-enter phase is recorded, so that in the case of preemption, the call-leave
phase can start by replaying the record.  As a result, the user gets to see the
whole system call on a single line, instead of just the second half.  Such
system call resumptions are marked with a "*" in their prefix, to show that
the call was not just entered.  The output therefore looks like this:

      2| syscall() = <..>
      3| othercall() = 0
      2|*syscall() = 0

Signals that arrive during a call will cause a resumption of the call as well.
As a result, a call may be resumed multiple times:

      2| syscall() = <..>
      3| othercall() = 0
      2|*syscall() = ** SIGUSR1 ** ** SIGUSR2 ** <..>
      3| othercall() = -1 [EBUSY]
      2|*syscall() = ** SIGHUP ** <..>
      3| othercall() = 0
      2|*syscall() = 0

This entire scenario shows one single system call from process 2.

In the current implementation, the output that should be recorded and/or cause
the "<..>" preemption marker, as well as the cases where the recorded text must
be replayed, are marked by the code explicitly.  Replay takes place in three
cases: upon the call-leave event (obviously), upon receiving a signal (as shown
above), and when it is required that a suspended no-return call is shown as
completed before continuing with other output.  The last case applies to exit()
and execve(), and both are documented in the code quite extensively.  Generally
speaking, in all output lines where no recording or replay actions are
performed, the recording will not be replayed but also not removed.  This
allows for intermediate lines for that process in the output.  Practically
speaking, future support for job control could even print when a process get
stopped and continued, for that process, while preempting the output for the
ongoing system call for that same process.

It is possible that the output of the call-enter phase exhausts the recording
buffer for its process.  In this case, a new, shorter text is generated upon
process resumption.  There are many other aspects to proper output formatting
in the light of preemption, but most of them should be documented as part of
the code reasonably well.