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35 .\" @(#)u1 8.1 (Berkeley) 6/8/93
36 .\"
37 .nr PS 9
38 .if t .nr VS 11
39 .if n .ls 2
40 .nr PI .25i
41 .SH
42 INTRODUCTION
43 .PP
44 From the user's point of view,
45 the
46 .UC UNIX
47 operating system
48 is easy
49 to learn and use,
50 and presents few of the usual impediments
51 to getting the job done.
52 It is hard, however, for the beginner
53 to know where to start,
54 and how to make the best use
55 of the facilities available.
56 The purpose of this introduction
57 is to help new users
58 get used to the main ideas of
59 the
60 .UC UNIX
61 system
62 and start making effective use of it quickly.
63 .PP
64 You should have a couple of other documents with you
65 for easy reference as you read this one.
66 The most important is
67 .ul
68 The
69 .ul
70 .UC UNIX
71 .IT Programmer's
72 .IT Manual \|;
73 it's often easier to tell you to read about something
74 in the manual
75 than to repeat its contents here.
76 The other useful document is
77 .ul
78 A Tutorial Introduction to the
79 .ul
80 .UC UNIX
81 .ul
82 Text Editor,
83 which will tell you how to use the editor
84 to get text \(em
85 programs, data, documents \(em
86 into the computer.
87 .PP
88 A word of warning:
89 the
90 .UC UNIX
91 system
92 has become quite popular,
93 and there are several major variants
94 in widespread use.
95 Of course details also change with time.
96 So although the basic structure of
97 .UC UNIX
98 and how to use it is common to all versions,
99 there will certainly be a few things
100 which are different on your system from
101 what is described here.
102 We have tried to minimize the problem,
103 but be aware of it.
104 In cases of doubt,
105 this paper describes Version 7
106 .UC UNIX .
107 .PP
108 This paper has five sections:
109 .IP "\ \ 1."
110 Getting Started:
111 How to log in,
112 how to type,
113 what to do about mistakes in typing,
114 how to log out.
115 Some of this is dependent on which
116 system
117 you log into
118 (phone numbers, for example)
119 and what terminal you use,
120 so this section must necessarily be supplemented
121 by local information.
122 .IP "\ \ 2."
123 Day-to-day Use:
124 Things you need every day to use
125 the system
126 effectively:
127 generally useful commands;
128 the file system.
129 .IP "\ \ 3."
130 Document Preparation:
131 Preparing manu\%scripts is one of the most common uses
132 for
133 .UC UNIX
134 systems.
135 This section contains advice,
136 but not
137 extensive instructions on any
138 of the formatting tools.
139 .IP "\ \ 4."
140 Writing Programs:
141 .UC UNIX
142 is an excellent system for developing programs.
143 This section talks about some of the tools,
144 but again is not a tutorial in any of the programming languages
145 provided by the system.
146 .IP "\ \ 5."
147 A
148 .UC UNIX
149 Reading List.
150 An annotated bibliography of
151 documents that new users should be aware of.
152 .SH
153 I. GETTING STARTED
154 .SH
155 Logging In
156 .PP
157 You must have a
158 .UC UNIX
159 login name, which you can get from
160 whoever administers your system.
161 You also need to know the phone number,
162 unless your system uses permanently connected terminals.
163 The
164 .UC UNIX
165 system
166 is capable of dealing with a wide variety of terminals:
167 Terminet 300's; Execuport, TI and similar
168 portables;
169 video (CRT) terminals like the HP2640, etc.;
170 high-priced graphics terminals like the Tektronix 4014;
171 plotting terminals like those from GSI and DASI;
172 and even the venerable
173 Teletype in its various forms.
174 But note:
175 .UC UNIX
176 is strongly oriented towards devices with
177 .ul
178 lower case.
179 If your terminal produces only upper case (e.g., model 33 Teletype, some video and portable terminals),
180 life will be so difficult that you should look for another
181 terminal.
182 .PP
183 Be sure to set the switches appropriately on your device.
184 Switches that might need to be adjusted include the speed,
185 upper/lower case mode,
186 full duplex, even parity, and any others
187 that local wisdom advises.
188 Establish a connection using whatever
189 magic is needed for your terminal;
190 this may involve dialing a telephone call or merely flipping a switch.
191 In either case,
192 .UC UNIX
193 should type
194 .UL login: '' ``
195 at you.
196 If it types garbage, you may be at the wrong speed;
197 check the switches.
198 If that fails,
199 push the ``break'' or ``interrupt'' key a few times, slowly.
200 If that fails to produce a login message, consult a guru.
201 .PP
202 When you get a
203 .UL login:
204 message,
205 type your
206 login name
207 .ul
208 in lower case.
209 Follow it by a
210 .UC RETURN ;
211 the system will not do anything until you type a
212 .UC RETURN .
213 If a password is required,
214 you will be asked for it,
215 and (if possible)
216 printing will be turned off while you type it.
217 Don't forget
218 .UC RETURN .
219 .PP
220 The culmination of your login efforts is a
221 ``prompt character,''
222 a single character that indicates that
223 the system
224 is ready to accept commands from you.
225 The prompt character is usually a
226 dollar sign
227 .UL $
228 or a
229 percent sign
230 .UL % .
231 (You may also get a message of the day just before the
232 prompt character, or a notification that you have mail.)
233 .SH
234 Typing Commands
235 .PP
236 Once you've seen the prompt character, you can type commands,
237 which are
238 requests that
239 the system
240 do something.
241 Try typing
242 .P1
243 date
244 .P2
245 followed by
246 .UC RETURN.
247 You should get back something like
248 .P1
249 Mon Jan 16 14:17:10 EST 1978
250 .P2
251 Don't forget the
252 .UC RETURN
253 after the command,
254 or nothing will happen.
255 If you think you're being ignored,
256 type a
257 .UC RETURN ;
258 something should happen.
259 .UC RETURN
260 won't be mentioned
261 again,
262 but don't forget it \(em
263 it has to be there
264 at the end of each line.
265 .PP
266 Another command you might try is
267 .UL who ,
268 which tells you everyone who is currently logged in:
269 .P1
270 who
271 .P2
272 gives something like
273 .P1
274 .ta .5i 1i
275 mb tty01 Jan 16 09:11
276 ski tty05 Jan 16 09:33
277 gam tty11 Jan 16 13:07
278 .P2
279 The time is when the user logged in;
280 ``ttyxx'' is the system's idea of what terminal
281 the user is on.
282 .PP
283 If you make a mistake typing the command name,
284 and refer to a non-existent command,
285 you will be told.
286 For example, if you type
287 .P1
288 whom
289 .P2
290 you will be told
291 .P1
292 whom: not found
293 .P2
294 Of course, if you inadvertently type the name of some other command,
295 it will run,
296 with more or less mysterious results.
297 .SH
298 Strange Terminal Behavior
299 .PP
300 Sometimes you can get into a state
301 where your terminal acts strangely.
302 For example,
303 each letter may be typed twice,
304 or the
305 .UC RETURN
306 may not cause a line feed
307 or a return to the left margin.
308 You can often fix this by logging out and logging back in.\(dg
309 .FS
310 \(dg In Berkeley Unix, the command "reset<control-j>"
311 will often reset a terminal apparently in a strange state because a fullscreen
312 editor crashed.
313 .FE
314 Or you can read the description of the command
315 .UL stty
316 in section 1 of the manual.
317 To get intelligent treatment of
318 tab characters
319 (which are much used in
320 .UC UNIX )
321 if your terminal doesn't have tabs,
322 type the command
323 .P1
324 stty \-tabs
325 .P2
326 and the system will convert each tab into the right number
327 of blanks for you.
328 .SH
329 Mistakes in Typing
330 .PP
331 If you make a typing mistake, and see it before
332 .UC RETURN
333 has been typed,
334 there are two ways to recover.
335 The sharp-character
336 .UL #
337 erases the last character typed;
338 in fact successive uses of
339 .UL #
340 erase characters back to
341 the beginning of the line (but not beyond).
342 So if you type badly, you can correct as you go:
343 .P1
344 dd#atte##e
345 .P2
346 is the same as
347 .UL date .\(dd
348 .FS
349 \(dd Many installations set the erase character for display terminals to
350 the delete or backspace key. "stty all" tells you what it actually is.
351 .FE
352 .PP
353 The at-sign
354 .UL @
355 erases all of the characters
356 typed so far
357 on the current input line,
358 so if the line is irretrievably fouled up, type an
359 .UL @
360 and start the line over.
361 .PP
362 What if you must enter a sharp or at-sign
363 as part of the text?
364 If you precede either
365 .UL #
366 or
367 .UL @
368 by a backslash
369 .UL \e ,
370 it loses its erase meaning.
371 So to enter a sharp or at-sign in something, type
372 .UL \e#
373 or
374 .UL \e@ .
375 The system will always echo a newline at you after your at-sign,
376 even if preceded by a backslash.
377 Don't worry \(em
378 the at-sign has been recorded.
379 .PP
380 To erase a backslash,
381 you have to type two sharps or two at-signs, as in
382 .UL \e## .
383 The backslash is used extensively in
384 .UC UNIX
385 to indicate that the following character is in some way special.
386 .SH
387 Read-ahead
388 .PP
389 .UC UNIX
390 has full read-ahead,
391 which means that you can type as fast as you want,
392 whenever you want,
393 even when some command is typing at you.
394 If you type during output,
395 your input characters will appear intermixed with the output characters,
396 but they will be stored away
397 and interpreted in the correct order.
398 So you can type several commands one after another without
399 waiting for the first to finish or even begin.
400 .SH
401 Stopping a Program
402 .PP
403 You can stop most programs by
404 typing the character
405 .UC DEL '' ``
406 (perhaps called ``delete'' or ``rubout'' on your terminal).
407 The ``interrupt'' or ``break'' key found on most terminals
408 can also be used.\(dg
409 .FS
410 \(dg In Berkeley Unix, "control-c" is the usual way to stop programs. "stty all"
411 tells you the value of your "intr" key.
412 .FE
413 In a few programs, like the text editor,
414 .UC DEL
415 stops whatever the program is doing but leaves you in that program.
416 Hanging up the phone will stop most programs.\(dd
417 .FS
418 \(dd In most modern shells, programs running in the background continue
419 running even if you hang up.
420 .FE
421 .SH
422 Logging Out
423 .PP
424 The easiest way to log out is to hang up the phone.
425 You can also type
426 .P1
427 login
428 .P2
429 and let someone else use the terminal you were on.*
430 .FS
431 * "control-d" and "logout" are other alternatives.
432 .FE
433 It is usually not sufficient just to turn off the terminal.
434 Most
435 .UC UNIX
436 systems
437 do not use a time-out mechanism, so you'll be
438 there forever unless you hang up.
439 .SH
440 Mail
441 .PP
442 When you log in, you may sometimes get the message
443 .P1
444 You have mail.
445 .P2
446 .UC UNIX
447 provides a postal system so you can
448 communicate with
449 other users of the system.
450 To read your mail,
451 type the command
452 .P1
453 mail
454 .P2
455 The headers of your mail will be printed, in the order of their receipt.
456 A message can be read with the
457 .UL print
458 command,
459 or specified directly by number.
460 Other commands are described in the manual.
461 (Earlier versions of
462 .UL mail
463 do not process one message at a time,
464 but are otherwise similar.)
465 .PP
466 How do you send mail to someone else?
467 Suppose it is to go to ``joe'' (assuming ``joe'' is someone's login name).
468 The easiest way is this:
469 .P1
470 mail joe
471 .ft I
472 now type in the text of the letter
473 on as many lines as you like ...
474 After the last line of the letter
475 type the character ``.'',
476 alone on the last line,
477 like so:
478 \&.
479 .P2
480 And that's it.
481 .PP
482 For practice, send mail to yourself.
483 (This isn't as strange as it might sound \(em
484 mail to oneself is a handy reminder mechanism.)
485 .PP
486 There are other ways to send mail \(em
487 you can send a previously prepared letter,
488 and you can mail to a number of people all at once.
489 For more details, see
490 .UL mail (1).
491 (The notation
492 .UL mail (1)
493 means the command
494 .UL mail
495 in section 1
496 of the
497 .ul
498 .UC UNIX
499 .ul
500 .IT Programmer's
501 .IT Manual .)
502 .SH
503 Writing to other users\(dg
504 .FS
505 \(dg Although "write" works on Berkeley
506 .UC UNIX,
507 there is a much nicer way of communicating using display-terminals \(em
508 "talk" splits the screen into two sections, and both of you can type
509 simultaneously (see talk(1)).
510 .FE
511 .PP
512 At some point,
513 out of the blue will come a message
514 like
515 .P1
516 Message from joe tty07...
517 .P2
518 accompanied by a startling beep.
519 It means that Joe wants to talk to you,
520 but unless you take explicit action you won't be able to talk back.
521 To respond,
522 type the command
523 .P1
524 write joe
525 .P2
526 This establishes a two-way communication path.
527 Now whatever Joe types on his terminal will appear on yours
528 and vice versa.
529 The path is slow, rather like talking to the moon.
530 (If you are in the middle of something, you have to
531 get to a state where you can type a command.
532 Normally, whatever program you are running has to terminate or be terminated.
533 If you're editing, you can escape temporarily from the editor \(em
534 read the editor tutorial.)
535 .PP
536 A protocol is needed to keep what you type from getting
537 garbled up with what Joe types.
538 Typically it's like this:
539 .P1
540 .tr --
541 .fi
542 .ft R
543 Joe types
544 .UL write
545 .UL smith
546 and waits.
547 .br
548 Smith types
549 .UL write
550 .UL joe
551 and waits.
552 .br
553 Joe now types his message
554 (as many lines as he likes).
555 When he's ready for a reply, he
556 signals it by typing
557 .UL (o) ,
558 which
559 stands for ``over''.
560 .br
561 Now Smith types a reply, also
562 terminated by
563 .UL (o) .
564 .br
565 This cycle repeats until
566 someone gets tired; he then
567 signals his intent to quit with
568 .UL (oo) ,
569 for ``over
570 and out''.
571 .br
572 To terminate
573 the conversation, each side must
574 type a ``control-d'' character alone
575 on a line.
576 When the other person types his ``control-d'',
577 you will get the message
578 .UL EOF
579 on your terminal.
580 .P2
581 .PP
582 If you write to someone who isn't logged in,
583 or who doesn't want to be disturbed,
584 you'll be told.
585 If the target is logged in but doesn't answer
586 after a decent interval,
587 simply type ``control-d''.
588 .SH
589 On-line Manual
590 .PP
591 The
592 .ul
593 .UC UNIX
594 .ul
595 Programmer's Manual
596 is typically kept on-line.
597 If you get stuck on something,
598 and can't find an expert to assist you,
599 you can print on your terminal some manual section that might help.
600 This is also useful for getting the most up-to-date
601 information on a command.
602 To print a manual section, type
603 ``man command-name''.
604 Thus to read up on the
605 .UL who
606 command,
607 type
608 .P1
609 man who
610 .P2
611 and, of course,
612 .P1
613 man man
614 .P2
615 tells all about the
616 .UL man
617 command.
618 .SH
619 Computer Aided Instruction
620 .PP
621 Your
622 .UC UNIX
623 system may have available
624 a program called
625 .UL learn ,
626 which provides computer aided instruction on
627 the file system and basic commands,
628 the editor,
629 document preparation,
630 and even C programming.
631 Try typing the command
632 .P1
633 learn
634 .P2
635 If
636 .UL learn
637 exists on your system,
638 it will tell you what to do from there.